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No.  44.— THE  LIGHTING  IN  THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIO.— By 

P.  C.  DucHocHOis.    A  new  edition.    In  press. 

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THE  LIGHTING 

IN 

Photographic  Studios 

(ILLUSTRATED.) 


BY 

P.  C.  DUCHOCHOIS,  Photographer. 

Author  of  "Photographic  Reproduction  Processes,"  "The  Photo- 
graphic Image,"  etc.,  etc. 


{Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.) 


II  y  a  des  gens  qui  veulent  toujours  artialiser  la  nature,  il  vaudrait  mieux  naturaliser 
V  Art— Michel  Montaigne. 

Light  is  our  palette  ;  we  must  never  cease  to  study  it.— Adam  Salomon. 


NEW  YORK: 

THE  SCOVILL  &  ADAMS  COMPANY. 
J  893. 


Copyrighted,  1890. 
By  p.  C.  Duchochois. 


1892. 

By  The  Scovill  &  Adams  Co. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

General  Principles — Balance  —  Repetitions — Rules  to  be  observed  in 
making  Portraits — Examples — Composition  of  Groups — Examples 
— The  Expression— How  to  obtain  it — The  Line  of  Horizon — The 
Distance— The  First  Studies. 


CHAPTER  II. 
The  Lighting — Different  Modes  of  Distributing  the  Light. 

CHAPTER  III. 
Rules  and  Effects  of  Lighting. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Glass  House— How  the  Light  plays  into  it — Its  Construction — Ap- 
pliances to  direct  and  regulate  the  Light  and  to  modify  its  actinic 
Action. 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Backgrounds  —  Their  Lighting  —  Vignette  Background — Back- 
ground and  Posing  Apparatus  combined — The  Landscape  and 
Interior  Backgrounds. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


The  Lighting  of  the  Model— Examples— Rembrandt's  Style— Defects 
to  be  avoided — Profiles— Cartes  Russes — Vignetting — Ferrotypes — 
The  Head  Reflector. 


4 


CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  VII. 


Treatment  of  the  Eyes— Direction  of  the  Vision — The  Lighting  of 
Blue  Eyes — A  simple  Rule  to  place  the  Model  in  the  Light — Man- 
agement of  the  Eyes. 

Concludmg  Remarks. — Retouching — How  to  Study  the  Effects  of 
Light  and  Shade — Importance  of  Long-Focus  Lenses — The  Focus 
— The  Lighting  in  Relation  to  the  Lenses — Conclusion. 

APPENDIX. 

The  Development  in  Relation  to  the  Lighting — The  Use  of  Orthochro- 
matic  Plates  in  Portraiture — The  Lighting  in  Open  Air  and  in  a 
Parlor. 


THE  LIGHTING 

IN 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 


CHAPTER  1. 

General  Principles  to  be  Observed  in  Making 
Portraits. 

The  object  of  this  book,  and  its  extent  permit 
me  only  to  give  the  principal  rules  to  be  observed 
in  posing  and  some  advice  to  guide  the  student, 
referring  the  reader  to  the  works  on  the  esthet- 
ics of  the  fine  arts  for  more  complete  instruc- 
tion. 

Nothing  seems  so  easy  as  to  make  a  portrait, 
nothing  is  more  difficult.  Among  the  great 
painters  very  few  excel  in  this  branch  of  the 
art. 

The  first  principle  to  be  borne  in  mind,  and 
indeed  it  is  the  most  important,  is  that  to  make 
a  portrait  is  to  represent  not  an  action,  but  a 
person  with  his  proper  character  and  as  he  ap- 
pears every  day  to  his  friends.    Therefore  a 


6  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

portrait  must  be  composed  by  very  simple 
means,  avoiding  too  many  and  too  showy  acces- 
sories, especially  those  of  a  light  color,  because 
they  divert  the  attention  from  the  principal 
subject  by  attracting  the  eyes  to  them.  The 
attitude  should  be  calm,  without  the  least  ap- 
pearance of  strain  or  of  ''posing"  the  head,  the 
subject,  and,  therefore,  everything  should  be 
subordinate  to  it.  The  shoulders  should  be 
straight,  or  very  nearly  so;  the  hands  visible; 
the  form  of  the  composition  generally  that  of  a 
pyramid;  the  lines  graceful,  prolonged,  without 
exaggeration  and  well  balanced ;  that  is  to  say, 
supporting  each  other.  Successive  parallel  lines 
are  unpleasant  and  inartistic. 

A  line  is  said  to  balance  or  support  when  it 
ends  at  another  line  running  in  an  opposite  di- 
rection. It  is  a  rule  from  which  no  artist  can  de- 
part that  the  lines — whether  formed  by  the  atti- 
tude of  the  model,  or  the  accessories,  or  the  folds  of 
the  dresses — be  so  compensated  as  to  give  stabil- 
ity and  contrast  to  the  whole.  Imagine  a  group  of 
persons  placed  in  rows  one  over  the  other,  a 
lady  and  a  gentleman  standing  erect  side  by 
side,  or  a  person  leaning  alongside  a  column! 
Is  it  to  say  that  the  repetition  of  lines,  of  forms, 
of  lights  and  shades  should  be  divided  ?  Cer- 
tainl}^  not,  for  the  repetitions  impart  harmony 
to  the  composition;  but  they  should  not  be 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  ^ 

treated  with  the  same  importance  as  the  princi- 
pal subject.  The  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  by 
Rubens,  and  the  ''Charity,"  painted  for  King 
Francis  I.  by  Andrea  del  Sarte,  are  splendid  ex- 
amples of  grouping  and  of  well-balanced  and 
repeated  lines. 

When  not  requested  to  do,  avoid  taking  stand- 
ing pictures  of  gentlemen.  Our  cylindrical  and 
round-shaped  hats,  our  dress  may  be  very  con- 
venient in  which  to  attend  to  our  daily  occupa- 
tions, but  are  entirely  inartistic.  Were  we  not 
used  to  see  ourselves  so  dressed  a  la  mode,  it 
would  seem  very  queer,  to  say  the  least.  On 
the  whole,  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  a  picture 
of  a  man ;  all  is  straight,  angular,  even  in  a  sit- 
ting attitude.  A  bust  only  is  tolerable.  How- 
ever, by  some  artifice,  a  draped  mantle  or  the 
like,  a  good  picture  can  be  composed. 

Full  length  and  sitting  portraits  of  ladies  are 
easily  made.  The  body  a  little  turned,  the 
head  placed  in  another  direction,  to  give  diver- 
sity and  animation;  the  attitude  simple,  the 
eyes  looking  at  you,  make  a  composition  with 
that  evenness  and  serenity,  not  devoid  of  dis- 
tinction and  grace,  which  are  the  characteristics 
of  a  good  likeness  and  of  an  artistic  picture. 

It  is  a  great  error  to  think  that  such  a  compo- 
sition is  common  and  not  susceptible  of  variety. 
A  slight  difference  in  the  movement  of  the  head 


8  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

and  in  the  position  of  the  body,  another  ar- 
rangement of  the  draperies,  other  effects  of 
light  and  shade,  and  especially  the  features  of 
the  model,  compose  quite  another  picture. 

All  pretentious,  twisted  and  strained  atti- 
tudes, those  with  the  head  turned  so  as  to  look 
over  the  shoulder,  so  to  say,  which  force  the 
eyes  into  the  corners,  should  be  avoided,  al- 
though you  may  be  induced  to  do  it  by  the  ad- 
mirable portraits  of  Michael  Angelo,  of  Raphael 
and  Van  Dyck,  painted  by  themselves;  for  the 
artist  has  at  his  command  certain  artifices  to 
alter  the  lines  without  looking  unnatural,  or  to 
conceal  what  is  exaggerated  and  appears  awk- 
ward, while  the  photographer  can  reproduce 
nature  only  as  it  is,  and  is,  besides,  restricted 
by  the  exigencies  of  the  lens. 

Generally,  portraits  exactly  full  face  or  profile 
are  not  very  gracious.  The  most  advantageous 
position  is  that  which  artists  call  three-quarters-, 
moreover,  it  admits  of  producing  better  effects 
of  light  and  shade.  But  the  head  should  not  be 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  shoulders ;  it  should 
have  a  certain  inflection  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left  if  the  shoulders  are  facing,  and  vice  versa. 

The  foreshortening  is  one  of  the  greatest 
shortcomings  of  photography.  What  is  on  the 
foreground  is  either  out  of  focus  or  too  large  in 
proportion  to  the  other  parts,  unless  using 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  9 

lenses  of  very  long  focus.  Hence  in  a  sitting 
pose  the  legs  and  arms  should  be  placed  almost 
in  the  same  plane  as  the  body;  indeed,  the  en- 
largement of  the  foreground  produces  the  most 
deplorable  effects  in  large  heads  taken  directly 
from  nature*  and  sadly  interferes  with  the  com- 
position of  groups,  for  all  the  persons  should  be 
placed  in  planes  nearly  adjacent  to  each  other, 
and  in  a  semicircle,  to  be  in  focus.  Above  an 
8  X  ID  size,  groups  are  seldom  good.  If  larger 
ones  are  wanted,  it  is  better  to  make  enlarge- 
ments from  small  negatives. 

As  a  rule  the  attitude  must  be  in  repose.  Any 
gesture,  smile  or  contraction  of  the  face,  when 
not  the  result  of  a  real  action,  of  a  true  emo- 
tion, appears  exaggerated,  often  ridiculous.  Ac- 
tors alone  can  pose  in  action,  and  yet  it  has  to 
the  observer  the  appearance  of  ''posing"  for 
the  same  reason.  It  is  only  on  the  stage  that  it 
can  be  effective,  because  the  spectator,  being 
interested  in  the  play,  fails  to  notice  that  the 
attitudes,  the  animation,  are  conventional, 
studied  and  generally  the  same;  moreover,  they 
are  of  a  momentary  duration. 

Compose  your  picture  according  to  the  indi- 
viduality of  the  person  to  be  represented,  that 


*If,  for  example,  the  body  is  placed  in  profile,  or  nearly  so,  the  shoul- 
der in  the  foreground  is  entirely  out  of  proportion  and  both  shoulders 
badly  out  of  focus. 


lO  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

is,  according  to  his  character,  his  age,  his  pro- 
fession and  condition,  and  with  appropriate  back- 
grounds and  accessories.  The  portrait  of  a 
soldier  and  of  a  savant,  that  of  a  statesman  and 
a  clergyman,  cannot  be  treated  in  the  same 
manner.  Let,  for  instance,  the  soldier  have  a 
commanding  or  buoyant  attitude,  with  a  frank, 
open  expression,  and  let  the  light  play  around 
him  to  give  relief  to  the  figure.  An  old  savant 
may  be  lighted  by  broad  and  contrasted  effects 
of  lights  and  shades  to  impart  greater  character 
to  the  head,  the  attitude  being  reposed,  the  ac- 
cessories simple  and  appropriate  to  his  studies. 
As  to  the  statesman — but  everybody  has  a  fa- 
miliar attitude  resulting  either  from  his  temper- 
ament, his  occupation  or  standing  in  society, 
which  does  not  escape  the  observation  of  an  ar- 
tist. Observe  the  model  while  conversing  with 
him  during  the  necessary  preparations  on  some 
subject  which  may  interest  him,  for,  certainly, 
by  the  force  of  habit,  he  will  take  the  pose 
which  suits  him  best. 

The  relation  of  the  parts  to  the  whole,  the  ac- 
cordance of  the  parts  between  themselves  and 
of  the  whole  to  the  parts,  or  unity  and  harmony, 
the  two  fundamental  constituents  of  all  the 
works  of  art,  are  in  photography  of  difficult  ap- 
plication for  the  composition  of  groups,  owing 
to  the  exigencies  of  the  lens;  and  it  requires  all 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  II 

the  ingenuity  of  an  educated  photographer  to 
surmount  the  difficulties  and  to  apply  the  princi- 
ples when  a  great  number  of  persons  must  enter 
into  the  picture ;  for,  in  portraits,  simplicity  and 
repose  are  essential  conditions  which  admit  of 
a  simple  action  or  motive  excluding  move- 
ments often  awkward  and  expressions  always 
forced,  unnatural,  borrowed.  To  the  painter 
pertains  the  representation  of  animated  scenes, 
not  to  the  photographer;  a  moment's  reflection 
will  convince  any  one  of  the  truth  of  this  ob- 
servation. 

In  groups  the  principal  subject  should  be  pre- 
dominant; not  necessarily  in  the  centre  of  the 
picture,  nor  in  the  foreground,  but  at  once  it 
should  attract  the  attention.  The  form,  that  is, 
the  arrangement  of  the  lines,  depends  on  the 
number  of  individuals  which  must  compose  it. 
For  a  group  of  three  the  best  form  is,  as  for  a 
single  figure,  that  of  an  irregular  pyramid — 
which  is  most  convenient  to  balance  the  lines — 
like,  for  instance,  the  well-known  group  of 
Longfellow's  children.  Four  or  five  persons 
may  be  introduced  in  this  form,  or  the  arrange- 
ment may  be  that  of  a  lozenge  and  even  a  diag- 
onal; but,  then,  the  secondary  forms  are  gener- 
ally triangular,  and  when  the  number  of  persons 
necessitates  separate  groupings,  they  should  be 
united  by  some  artifices  and  the  principal  group 


12  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

not  lost  in  the  ensemble,  but  always  predominant. 
Hence  the  subjects  should  not  be  scattered,  and, 
whatever  be  the  arrangement,  they  should  enter 
into  the  same  action  or  be  connected  with  it. 

The  Last  Supper,"  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and 
''The  Entombment  of  Jesus,"  a  bas-relief  by 
Daniele  di  Volterra,  are  admirable  examples  of 
unity  of  action. 

Whenever  a  composition  deviates  from  these 
rules  the  effect  is  destroyed  and  the  spectator 
fails  to  be  impressed,  for  the  attention  is  divided 
and  the  eyes  wander  from  one  group  to  another 
instead  of  being  forced,  so  to  say,  to  uncon- 
sciously return  to  the  real  subject.  The  result 
is  often  a  picture  from  which  others,  forming  a 
whole  by  themselves,  can  be  cast  off  without 
altering  the  character  of  the  principal  scene. 
As  an  example,  one  can  cite  a  great  master's 
work,  '' The  Transfiguration,"  by  Raphael;  the 
scene  above — the  motive  of  the  picture — is  en- 
tirely put  into  the  shade  by  the  dramatic  action 
below,  which  seems  to  be  the  real  subject. 

For  examples  of  compositions,  appropriate  to 
portraiture,  two  are  selected  to  guide  the  stu- 
dent. The  first  one  is  the  family  of  a  cultiva- 
tor, Le  pere  Gerard,  by  Louis  David.  A  little 
girl  preludes  before  playing  on  the  harpsichord 
— the  motive — and  now  turns  her  head  to  look 
at  you,  a  friend  not  seen  in  the  picture.  By 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  13 

her,  on  the  right  of  the  picture,  sits  the  father, 
full  face,  holding  between  his  knees  his  young- 
est son,  who,  with  a  book  in  one  hand,  the  other 
on  the  knee  of  his  father,  seems  quite  interest- 
ed in  the  play  and  looks  at  his  sister.  On  the 
second  plane,  behind  the  little  girl,  is  standing 
another  son,  one  hand  on  the  harpsichord  and 
leaning  forward  to  look  at  the  music.  Lastly, 
between  him  and  Gerard,  stands,  looking  at 
you,  the  oldest  son,  forming  the  apex  of  the 
pyramid.  All  the  standing  figures  are  seen  in 
three-quarter  view. 

The  second  example  is  a  picture  by  Greuze. 
It  is  a  group  of  three  persons,  and  represents 
the  family  of  a  farmer,  probably.  The  interior 
is  simple,  consequently,  a  ray  of  sunshine  from 
a  window  on  the  right  obliquely  illuminates  the 
middle  of  the  wall,  a  plain  ground,  the  other  parts 
being  in  half  shade  and  shadow,  to  relieve  by 
contrast  the  lighting  of  the  models.  The  figures 
are  full  sized,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  the 
mother.  Near  a  wooden  table  placed  diagon- 
ally— one  leg  of  which  only  is  seen — the  daugh- 
ter sits,  on  the  left  of  the  picture,  holding  with 
both  hands  a  book  in  which  she  was  reading — 
the  motive — but  who  presently  looks  at  you. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  table,  also  in  the  fore- 
ground, the  father  is  seated  in  an  arm-chair,  the 
head  resting  on  the  left  arm,  which  itself  rests  on 


14  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

the  table,  and  facing  you.  His  attitude,  with  the 
other  hand  on  his  knee,  repeats  the  lines  formed 
by  the  attitude  of  the  maiden.  Close  to  him,  one 
arm  around  his  neck,  the  other  on  the  table  over 
which  she  bends,  the  mother  lovingly  gazes  at 
her  daughter.  Nothing  so  simple  as  the  com- 
position; nothing  more  pretty  than  the  picture. 

As  to  the  manner  of  obtaining  expression, 
without  which  a  portrait  is  valueless,  no  matter 
how  technically  well  treated,  there  is  a  singular 
custom  amongst  many  photographers,  that  of  re- 
questing the  model,  just  before  exposing,  to 
'Vtake  "  a  pleasant  expression.  The  physiogno- 
my reflects  the  attitudes  of  the  soul  and  cannot 
be  composed  at  will;  certain  ideas  should  be 
suggested  to  animate  it,  otherwise  any  attempt 
from  the  model  to  ''take  "  an  expression  results 
only  in  imparting  an  unnatural,  grimacing  look 
to  the  features.  On  this  subject  Disderi,  in  his 
''Esthetics  of  Photography,"  remarks,  ''that 
the  faculty  of  imitation  is  innate  in  man — 
sorrow  or  joy  is  contagious.  If  you  observe  a 
spectator  at  the  theatre  you  will  see  his  physi- 
ognomy put  itself  in  unison  with  that  of  the 
actor  who  interests  him ;  you  will  see  the  vary- 
ing shades  and  changes  of  the  scene  pass  over 
his  countenance.  The  photographer  has  no 
other  means  of  reviving  the  expression  in  the 
features  of  his  model  than  by  taking  the  ex- 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  15 

pression  himself.  He  must,  therefore,  identify 
himself  with  the  moral  situation  that  he  desires 
to  create  in  the  person  to  be  represented,  which 
is  the  only  way  of  giving  to  his  physiognomy 
the  necessary  expression  lor  a  perfect  portrait." 

That  is  well  said.  But  it  does  not  suffice  to 
"create"  or  to  induce  an  expression,  always  so 
fugitive  that  it  becomes  stereotyped  and  unnat- 
ural when  the  model  is  told  * '  to  keep  that  ex- 
pression," and  disappears  entirely,  or  becomes 
serious  and  spiritless  when  he  is  requested  ' '  to 
keep  quite  still,"  from  the  effect  of  the  new 
order  of  ideas  conveyed  by  these  requests.  It 
should  be  ''taken"  the  moment  it  is  real,  and 
this  can  be  done  only  by  exposing  without  the 
model  knowing  it. 

In  the  recent  past,  when  the  exposure  had  to 
be  lengthened  to  from  ten  to  fifteen  seconds, 
and  even  more,  this  was  impracticable;  and 
whenever  Adam  Salomon  and  Mr.  Robinson 
succeeded,  as  it  is  said,  in  securing  a  good  ex- 
pression in  this  manner,  it  was  certainly  un  tour 
de  force  they  could  not  repeat  every  day.  But 
now,  with  our  rapid  processes,  the  exposure 
being  reduced  to  one  or  two  seconds,  all  diffi- 
culties are  removed,  especially  since  the  pneu- 
matic time-shutter  dispenses  with  apparently 
uncapping  the  lens,  and  to  thus  attract  the  at- 
tention of  the  subject  at  the  critical  moment. 
Therefore,  it  depends  on  the  skill  of  the  photog- 


l6  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

rapher,  on  his  learning  and  his  knowledge  of 
human  nature,  to  secure  a  portrait  which  shall 
be  a  pleasing  and  striking  likeness  and  an  artis- 
tic picture. 

To  the  professional  photographer  we  need  not 
give  any  advice.  To  the  student  we  will  say : 
Study  your  model;  make  up  your  mind  what 
the  picture  should  be;  have  the  accessories,  the 
head-rest,  everything,  ready  ;  then  pose  the 
model  in  a  simple  and  easy  attitude,  employing 
simple  effects  of  light  and  shade,  and,  at  the  last 
moment,  gently  place  the  head-rest,  unconcern- 
edly requesting  the  model  to  be  still  and  to  look 
''there"  for  an  instant,  in  order  to  allow  you 
to  make  the  final  arrangements;  then — continu- 
ing the  conversation  to  interest  him  and  induce 
a  good  expression — expose  while  he  is  still  ex- 
pecting to  be  told  ''not  to  move "  and  to  "take 
a  pleasant  expression."  Of  course  this  demands 
a  good  deal  of  tact  and  some  ability  not  to  keep 
the  model  waiting  too  long.  It  should  be  done 
in  a  moment. 

To  commence  the  study  in  a  photographic 
studio  one  should  first  determine  the  line  oj 
horizon,^  When  it  passes  over  the  head  the 
lines  are  deformed,  the  oval  of  the  face  short- 
ened and  the  angles  too  salient.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  be  placed  on  the  middle  height 


"The  line  of  horizon  is  situated  at  the  height  of  the  eyes  of  the  de- 
signer; the  centre  of  the  lens  in  photography. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  1 7 

of  the  model,  the  opposite  effect  is  produced 
and  the  head  will  be  too  short.  In  a  sitting 
attitude  it  is  best  at  the  height  of  the  eyes  of 
the  sitter;  in  a  standing  figure  it  may  be  be- 
tween them  and  the  breast.  It  should  be  ob- 
served, however,  that  if  the  camera  be  level  the 
lens  looks  upward  into  the  face,  and  that,  con- 
sequently, the  most  unpleasing  likeness  is  the 
result.  The  camera  should  always  be  inclined 
forward,  no  matter  how  little,  and  the  picture 
placed  on  the  ground-glass  by  means  of  the 
rising  front  and  the  parallelism  restored  by  the 
swinging  back. 

Next,  to  preserve  the  proportions  in  a  given 
size,  the  distance  between  the  model  and  the 
camera  should  be  determined  by  taking  into 
consideration  the  height  of  the  body,  for  if  the 
space  over  the  head  be  too  small  or  too  great, 
the  model  appears  either  taller  or  shorter  than 
he  is  in  reality.  The  accessories  may  produce 
a  similar  effect.  For  example :  a  person  stand- 
ing near  a  low  table  looks  taller,  while  if  placed 
leaning  on  a  high  balustrade,  he  seems  to  be  of 
a  smaller  stature.  All  this  demands  taste  and 
judgment,  for  it  is  sometimes  advantageous  to 
somewhat  alter  the  proportions  in  order  to  em- 
bellish the  model  without  impairing  the  resem- 
blance. Again,  if  you  wish  to  impart  motion 
you  should  place  the  figure  on  one  side  of  the 
picture,  leaving  the  greater  space  before  it. 


l8  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

When  the  camera  is  placed  at  the  proper 
height  and  the  distance  determined,  try  from 
memory  to  place  the  model  in  some  of  the  atti- 
tudes you  have  observed  to  be  taken  b}^  persons 
in  every-day  life,  and  to  compose  a  picture  by 
applying  the  rules  and  principles  of  posing  and 
lighting.  This  will  not  at  first  make  a  very 
original  picture,  of  course,  but  little  by  little,  as 
your  artistic  training  progresses,  it  will  become 
so,  provided  you  can  resist  the  influences  that 
surround  you.  Then  if  your  works  are  not 
technically  good  they  will  have  the  great  and 
uncommon  merit  of  being  original ;  you  will  be 
yourself,  not  a  copyist  or  a  mere  adapter.  Every 
true  artist  has  his  own  originality,  which  de- 
pends less  on  his  artistic  education  than  his 
temperament  and  conception  of  the  ideal  beauty. 
Rembrandt  does  not  treat  subjects  as  Van  Dyck, 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  as  Correggio,  Reynolds  as 
Gainsborough.  It  would  have  been  impossible 
for  Michael  Angelo  to  idealize  the  Virgin  with 
that  feminine  grace  and  the  celestial  expression 
of  ''La  belle  Jardiniere,''  or  of  ''La  vierge  ati 
Chardonneret,''  which  impress  on  your  mind  an 
indellible  image  of  Peace,  Happiness  and  Inno- 
cence ;  but  the  divine  Raphael  could  never  have 
conceived  the  sublime  and  terrible  poem  of  the 
Sixtine  Chapel,  one  of  the  most  prodigious  monu- 
ments ever  made  by  a  mortal! 


CHAPTER  11. 


The  Lighting — Different  Modes  of  Distributing 
THE  Light. 

The  study  of  the  effects  of  light  and  shade  is 
as  important  as  that  of  posing.  It  is  the  light- 
ing which  gives  the  illusion  of  relief  and  im- 
parts character  and  variety  to  the  composition, 
not  less  than  the  arrangement  of  the  lines  and 
the  grouping  of  the  different  parts.  However, 
the  art  of  lighting  is  much  neglected  by  pho- 
tographers. The  pose  attracts  all  their  atten- 
tion. They  place  the  model  at  one  end  of  the 
studio — the  light  being  regulated  for  that  par- 
ticular place — and  whatever  be  the  character  of 
the  features  of  the  sitter,  it  is  invariably  lighted 
in  the  same  manner,  or,  in  other  words,  by  the 
light  arranged  once  for  all. 

That  is  a  great  error.  The  pose  and  the  light- 
ing are  closely  allied;  one  gives  value  to  the 
other;  both  are  subject  to  the  same  rules  and 
consequently  pertain  to  the  same  order  of  studies. 

As  it  has  been  said,  a  portrait  is  composed 
according  to  the  individuality  of  the  person  to 
be  represented;  that  is.  his  moral  character, 
which  is  reflected  by  the  features,  the  expres- 


20  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

sion  of  the  face;  his  age,  condition  and  profes- 
sion. The  attitude  should  be  simple;  the  face 
the  subject,  and  everything  else  related  to  it. 
The  lines  must  be  varied,  well  balanced  and 
nothing  in  the  picture  should  divert  the  atten- 
tion of  the  observer  from  the  subject  and  de- 
stroy the  unity,  but  the  eyes  should  be  coerced, 
so  to  speak,  to  return  to  it. 

If  we  apply  the  JSrst  rule  to  the  lighting,  one 
sees  at  a  glance  that  the  portrait  of  a  child,  that 
of  a  young  woman,  or  a  man  cannot  be  lighted 
in  the  same  manner,  nor  every  child,  woman 
and  man  treated  alike  to  preserve  their  indi- 
viduality. 

A  child,  for  example,  should  be  brightly 
lighted  with  contrast  of  soft,  well  gradated 
shadows  to  faithfully  render  its  delicate,  rosy 
face. 

The  portrait  of  a  woman  can  be  made  some- 
what in  the  same  manner,  to  impart  a  calm, 
pleasing  and  youthful  appearance. 

For  a  man  the  contrast  of  light  and  shade 
should  be  more  marked,  to  give  firmness  to  his 
features. 

A  man  of  mark  with  a  characteristic  face  may 
be  lighted  a  la  Rembrandt.  Not  the  Rembrandt 
of  the  photographer,  which  consists  in  placing 
the  model  nearly  in  profile  and  the  broad  side 
of  the  face  in  the  shadow — a  manner  Rembrandt 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  21 

never  used  in  portraits — but  by  large  effects  of 
light  and  shadow,  the  smaller  side  of  the  face 
being  in  the  shade,  or  partly  so. 

The  rules  and  examples  of  lighting  which 
will  be  given  should  be  studied  by  analyzing 
works  of  the  great  painters  in  the  originals,  if 
possible,  or  in  good  engravings,  in  order  not  to 
be  misled  and  to  produce  proper  effects ;  for  by 
an  injudicious  arrangement  of  light  and  shade 
one  may  entirely  alter  the  beauty  of  the  model 
or  exaggerate  the  defects  of  the  features,  giving 
hardness  to  a  pretty,  smiling  face  and  an  unde- 
cided, insipid  appearance  to  a  round  face  already 
devoid  of  character,  softness  to  energetic  feat- 
ures, etc.,  and  thus  destroy  the  characteristics 
and,  therefore,  the  resemblance,  which  not 
merely  consists  in  exactly  reproducing  the  lines 
or  the  form  of  the  head,  but  also  its  expression 
and  originalit}^ 

There  are  two  principal  modes  of  lighting  a 
portrait,  and,  indeed,  any  picturCo 

The  first  one,  which  consists  in  distributing 
the  light  in  masses  by  placing  the  whole  subject 
in  the  light,  is  not  devoid  of  grandeur.  It  has 
been  and  is  still  employed  by  artists,  but  the 
lights  should  be  contrasted  by  half  shade  and 
deep  shadows  to  give  vigor  and  solidity  to  the 
whole,  otherwise  the  pictures  become  grayish, 
monotonous,  without  character. 


22  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

The  other  manner  is  personified  by  the  great 
master  in  chiaro-oscuro,'^  whose  works  are  for 
the  artist  an  inexhaustible  source  of  study. 
''The portraits  of  Rembrandt,"  says  Mr.  Charles 
Blanc, t  ''induce  thought  because  they  think 
themselves.  Not  only  are  they  marvels  of 
chiaro-oscurOy  of  touch  and  modelling,  but  the 
nationality  of  the  man,  his  condition,  his  temper, 
his  moral  physiognomy,  all  are  at  once  observed. 
Statesmen,  physicians,  burgomasters,  savants, 
every  one  of  the  models  of  Rembrandt,  are 
characterized,  first,  by  the  adjustment  and  the 
accessories,  of  which  not  one  is  not  useful. 
Then  the  soul  becomes  visible  in  the  features; 
the  habits  of  the  mind,  the  most  intimate  senti- 
ments, betray  themselves  by  the  expression  of 
the  regard,  and  it  is  therein  especially  that  his 
portraits  are  living.  The  interior  flame  which 
lightens  the  eyes  renders  them  more  luminous 
still  than  the  ray  of  light  from  which  the  master 
has  made  a  pencil.  Rembrandt  represents  life 
by  the  thought,  and  the  personages  of  his  paint- 
ings can  say  with  the  philosopher,  je  pense,  done 
je  suis  f 

The  characteristic  manner  of  lighting  by 
Rembrandt,  that  which  produces  those  bold 


^Chiaro-oscuro  (or  light-dark)  is  the  art  of  combining  the  lights  and 
shades  to  produce  effect,  depth,  relief  and  color  in  a  picture. 
\  L'CEuvre  de  Rembrandt,  vol.  ii.,  p.  47. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  23 

effects  of  shadows  and  lights  in  his  paintings 
and  his  engravings,  that  which  gives  so  much 
force  to  the  scenes  he  represents,  is  very  simple : 
a  beam  of  light  falls  on  the  subject,  and,  being 
diffused  or  reflected  as  in  nature,  illuminates 
the  secondary  subjects,  then  melts  into  deep 
shadows,  thus  producing  strong  contrasts  of 
light  and  shade  without  harshness,  whilst  vari- 
ety and  balance  are  obtained  by  abrupt  transi- 
tions, giving  stability  to  the  whole. 

This  manner,  as  it  has  been  observed  by  emi- 
nent critics,  often  costs  too  much,  the  rest  of 
the  picture  being  sacrificed  to  the  principal  sub- 
ject and  to  the  brightness  of  effects.  Those 
who  have  tried  to  imitate  that  inimitable  master 
did  not  always  keep  within  reasonable  bounds, 
and  applied  this  mode  of  lighting  to  subjects 
which  did  not  comport  with  it.  Photographers, 
if  we  except  Adam  Salomon  and  a  few  others, 
have  exaggerated  it  to  the  very  brink  of  the 
grotesque,  not  knowing  either  the  principles  of 
the  chiaro-oscuro  or  the  method  of  regulating 
the  light  in  the  studio. 

As  examples  of  the  manner  of  Rembrandt 
one  should  study  the  well-known  ''Dr.  Faus- 
tus/'  ''Christ  Restoring  the.  Daughter  of 
J  aims/'  "Samson  Menacing  His  Father-in- 
law" —  better  known  in  Germany  as  "The 
Prisoner  — the  portrait  of  an  ' '  Old  Gentleman  " 


24  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

(a  jewel)  in  the  Gallery  of  Dresden^  the  cele- 
brated ''Night  Watch/'  and  The  Man  with  a 
Fur  Cap/'  at  the  Imperial  Museum  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, which  are  most  characteristic  of  the  style 
of  the  master.* 

Here  we  cannot  refrain  from  again  calling 
the  attention  of  the  student  to  the  master  work 
of  the  King  of  Antwerp,  the  Descent  from  the 
Cross,"  as  an  admirable  example  of  unity  and 
harmony  in  grouping  and  of  lighting.  All  the 
characters  in  that  sublime  scene,  the  holy 
women,  the  apostles,  concur  in  the  same  action, 
and  all  the  lines,  so  thoroughly  balanced,  radi- 
ate as  rays  of  light  from  the  Saviour,  whose 
body,  the  centre  of  attraction,  is  broadly  lighted 
and  relieved  by  a  white  sheet,  whilst  the  actors 
are  in  a  secondary  light,  melting  into  shadows 
to  which  half-tones  give  transparency. 


*  All  these  paintings  have  been  well  engraved  and  fomi  a  collection 
of  good  studies. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Rules  and  Effects  of  Lighting. 

In  portraiture,  the  head  is  the  principal  sub- 
ject. It  should,  therefore,  be  the  centre  of  illu- 
mination. That  is  not  to  say  that  it  should  be 
strongly  lighted  in  the  studio,  which  in  photog- 
raphy would  invariably  destroy  the  half-tones, 
or  details  in  the  lighter  parts,  but  that  it  should 
be  comparatively  so.  The  artifices  which  are 
employed  to  regulate  and  distribute  the  light, 
to  modify  its  actinic  action,  will  be  explained 
further  on. 

For  the  treatment  of  light,  d  la  Rembrandt, 
one  should  avoid  falling  into  exaggeration.  It 
is  the  most  difficult  manner  of  lighting  in 
photography,  and  one  we  do  not  recommend. 

Generally  portraits  so  lighted  are  nothing  but 
white  and  black  patches,  without  half  lights  to 
connect  the  high  lights  to  the  half  shades  and 
the  latter  to  the  deep  shadows,  all  being  devoid 
of  the  penumbra  necessary  to  soften  the 
ensemble. 

The  opposite  fault  is  also  common,  the  pic- 
ture being  full  of  details,  but  deficient  in  con- 
trasts and  insipid  by  its  flatness. 


2(5  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 


When  the  lighting  is  in  the  main  composed 
of  lights  and  half  lights,  the  shades  and  half 
shades  appear  to  advantage.  Hence,  if  the 
model  be  placed  in  the  shadow,  the  greatest 
light  falling  on  the  secondary  objects  around  it, 
the  figure  stands  well  out ;  but  being  in  the  half 
shadow,  it  should  be  relieved  by  half  lights 
and  deeper  shadows,  else  the  picture  is  crude. 
This  method  is  seldom  employed  for  portraits. 
In  landscapes  it  is  quite  effective,  as  may  be 
seen  in  many  of  the  etchings  of  Rembrandt.* 

The  opposite  lighting — that  is,  composing  the 
picture  with  lights  and  half  lights  and  relieving 
the  whole  by  deep  shadows — is  well  adapted  for 
portraiture. 

Most  brilliant  effects  are  produced  by  oppos- 
ing light  to  dark,  and  vice  versa ;  for  example, 
by  placing  the  lighted  part  of  the  subject  on  the 
dark  part  of  the  ground,  and  the  shadow  part 
on  the  light  part  of  the  same.  This  artifice, 
recommended  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  is  gen- 
erally employed  by  artists,  and  to  it  is  due, 
in  a  certain  measure,  the  striking  effects  ob- 
served in  their  works. 

By  such  an  arrangement  the  lights  appear 
brighter,  the  shades  darker,  and,  the  whole  be- 


*  We  have  seen  portraits  of  colored  persons  so  treated  which  were 
quite  effective.  The  difficulty  in  taking  these  portraits  is  the  glitter  of 
the  skin,  but  this  can  be  obviated  easily. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  27 

ing  well  balanced,  it  acquires  great  vigor.  This 
manner  is  specially  recommended  to  photogra- 
phers ;  moreover,  it  admits  of  shedding  upon 
the  face  a  subdued  light  or  of  softening  the 
direct  light  by  means  of  screens,  as  will  be  ex- 
plained, in  order  to  preserve  the  half  tints  or 
modeU,  without  losing  anything  of  the  general 
effect. 

To  impart  relief  to  the  picture,  the  shades 
should  be  contrasted  by  still  darker  shadows. 
And,  as  the  lights  should  be  relieved  by  shadows, 
so  should  the  masses  of  shadows  be  relieved  by 
repeating  the  lights,  but  subdued,  not  so  bright 
as  the  principal  one. 

When  the  lights  are  opposed  to  half  lights, 
the  darks  to  half  darks,  breadth,  softness,  har- 
mony is  the  result ;  but  the  effect  becomes  in- 
sipid if  they  are  not  balanced  by  opposing 
stronger  lights  or  darker  shadows  in  some  parts 
of  the  picture. 

It  has  just  been  said  that  the  shadows  appear 
so  much  darker  as  the  light  in  opposition  is 
brighter.  The  same  effect,  of  course,  occurs  in 
nature ;  but  then  the  eyes,  being  strongly  im- 
pressed by  the  brightness  of  the  light,  fail  to 
perceive  the  delicate  details  in  the  shadows. 
This  (which  in  photography  is  of  such  great 
importance,  because  it  is  reproduced  and  even 
exaggerated  in  the  negatives)  we  shall  have  oc- 


28  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

casion  to  practically  demonstrate,  and  to  sTiow 
how  the  details  in  the  shadows,  apparently  ob- 
literated when  the  model  is  placed  in  a  strong 
light,  can  be  rendered  visible  by  a  proper  regu- 
lation of  the  same. 

To  give  air,  distance,  relief,  the  subject—/.^., 
the  centre  of  illumination — should  be  relieved 
by  the  ground,  and  the  secondary  objects  or  ac- 
cessories placed  in  the  half  lights  or  half  shades. 
This  arrangement  will  be  more  effective  if  a 
strong  shadow  be  cast  in  the  foreground,  which 
will  greatly  increase  the  luminosity. 

As  it  is  seen,  there  is  always  a  certain  part  in 
a  picture  which  stands  pre-eminent.  ' '  It  is 
necessary,"  says  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  ''that 
some  part  (though  a  small  part  is  sufficient) 
should  be  sharp  and  cutting  against  the  ground, 
whether  it  be  light  on  dark  or  dark  on  light 
ground,  in  order  to  give  firmness  and  distinct- 
ness to  the  work  ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  re- 
lieved on  every  side,  it  will  appear  as  if  inlaid 
on  its  ground."  This  is  especially  applicable  in 
the  treatment  of  backgrounds. 

To  resume,  a  picture  is  made  of  light  and 
shade  blended  with  intermediate  tints — that  is, 
half  lights  and  half  shadows. 

Nothing  in  the  face  is  entirely  white.  All  is 
more  or  less  shaded,  with  touches  of  shadow  in 
the  more  receding  parts  and  touches  of  light  on 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  29 

the  prominent  parts,  as  it  appears  in  nature  on 
the  eyebrows,  the  arch  of  the  nose,  the  chin,  etc. 

Neither  is  anything  entirely  dark,  the  shadows 
being  relieved  by  half  shades  and  half  lights, 
which  depict  the  form  of  the  face  and  show  its 
anatomy. 

There  must  be  one  light  only  illuminating 
the  entire  picture."^  In  a  portrait  it  is  that 
which  falls  on  the  head. 

That  part  of  the  face  nearest  to  the  source  of 
light  should  be  lighted  the  most,  with  gradation 
to  shadow  in  the  receding  parts. 

Every  light  should  have  a  focus  or  centre  of 
illumination  brighter  than  the  rest.  In  a  por- 
trait, the  foci  are  on  the  prominent  parts  of  the 
face,  as  mentioned  above.  No  light,  no  shade 
exists  in  nature  without  a  focus,  without 
gradation. 

The  shadows  should  not  be  vertical  nor  hori- 
zontal, which  is  unnatural  and  inartistic  in 
effect.  Hence,  whatever  be  the  lighting,  the 
light  should  fall  on  the  model  at  a  certain  angle 
and  be  repeated  on  the  background,  but  in- 
versely, to  produce  vigor  and  brilliancy  by  con- 
trast of  light  and  shade. 

A  picture  wholly  composed  of  lights  and  half 

*  This  rule  is  seldom  observed  in  "  combination  printing  "  by  unedu- 
cated photographers.  It  is  not  a  rare  occurrence  to  see  interiors,  land- 
scapes and  clouds  lighted  from  one  direction  and  the  portraits  from  the 
opposite . 


30  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

lights,  shadows  and  half  shadows,  is  weak, 
without  character. 

If  it  consists  of  lights  and  shadows  finishing 
abruptly — that  is  to  say,  without  being  blended 
by  half  tints — it  looks  spotted,  unfinished,  and 
can  be  effective  only  when  viewed  at  a  certain 
distance.  This  mode  is  employed  in  decora- 
tion ;  in  photography  it  is  intolerable. 

The  illumination  of  the  face  being  the  main 
object  in  portraiture,  every  other  light  should 
be  subordinate  to  it. 

The  principal  light  should  be  repeated,  but 
not  with  the  same  brightness,  in  order  to  break 
the  monotony  and  to  impart  variety,  harmony 
and  color  to  the  picture.  This  rule  holds  good 
in  regard  to  the  shadows.  For  groups  prin- 
cipally, the  repetition  of  forms,  of  light  and 
shade  is  indispensable. 

Merging  the  draperies  or  the  accessories  into 
nothingness  in  the  shadow  is  objectionable  as  a 
rule,  but  sometimes  resorted  to  for  effect. 
Without  sacrificing  anything,  brilliancy  can  be 
obtained  in  defining  the  outlines  by  still  darker 
shadows. 

The  shadows  must  be  transparent  and  show 
the  form  of  the  objects  upon  which  they  are 
projected,  otherwise  they  look  flat,  heavy,  un- 
natural.   There  are  few  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

By  opposing  light  to  shadow  and  shadow  to 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  3I 

light,  brilliancy,  vigor  and  relief  are  produced. 
This  rule  is  not  absolute,  however.  Vigor  and 
effect  are  as  well  rendered  by  opposing  light  to 
light  and  shade  to  shade.  The  rule  to  be  ob- 
served is  to  relieve  the  figure  so  that  it  does  not 
appear  inlaid  in  the  ground. 

Indeed,  the  principal  object  in  distributing 
the  light  is  to  place  everything  in  perspective 
and  in  relief.  ''The  first  aim  of  the  painter," 
says  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  in  his  treatise  on  paint- 
ing, '4s  to  make  that  on  the  flat  surface  of  his 
picture  a  body  which  appears  relieved,  detached 
from  the  ground  ;  and  he  who  in  this  surpasses 
others  deserves  to  be  esteemed  as  a  great  master 
in  his  profession.  Now  that  excellence,  or 
rather  that  perfection,  that  crowning  of  the  art, 
arises  from  the  just  and  natural  distribution  of 
the  lights  and  shades  which  is  called  chiaro- 
oscuro,  so  that  if  the  painter  spares  the  shadows 
where  they  are  necessary,  he  incurs  disgrace 
and  renders  his  work  despicable  to  the  connois- 
seurs, in  order  to  acquire  a  false  reputation  with 
the  vulgar  and  the  ignorant,  who  in  a  painting 
only  consider  the  brilliant  and  the  fard,  without 
taking  note  of  the  relief." 


4r 


CHAPTER  IV. 

The  G  l  a  s  s  -  H  o  u  s  e  . . 

Having  described  the  different  modes  of  light- 
ing and  the  rules  to  be  observed,  we  must  now 
explain  what  should  be  the  construction  of  the 
photographic  studio  and  how  the  light  flows 
into  it,  in  order  that  the  student  may  produce 
and  regulate  the  effects  of  light  and  shade  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  chapter. 

The  painter  does  not  use  a  side  light,  but  dis- 
poses the  light  so  that  it  falls  on  the  model  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  It  is  the  classic 
lighting  and  answers  admirably  in  showing  the 
modeU ;  and  that  is  all  which  is  necessary,  for 
the  artist  creates  in  his  mind  a  certain  scene 
with  certain  effects  of  light  and  shade,  and  re- 
produces it  with  his  palette  often  without  regard 
to  the  lighting  in  the  studio,  although  guided 
by  it  to  some  extent,  his  previous  studies  and 
observations  of  nature  being  the  real  and  best 
guides. 

Not  so  with  the  photographer.  He  can  pro- 
duce only  what  appears  before  him,  and  there- 
fore he  should  direct,  alter,  reflect  the  light  on 
the  model  lo  portray  the  picture  he  has  con- 


THE  LIGHTING   IN   PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 


33 


ceived  ;  in  a  word,  he  should  design  a  natural, 
living  scene,  un  tableau  vivant,  and  then  me- 
chanically, or  nearly  so,  fix  by  chemical  means 
the  scene  projected  at  the  focus  of  his  optical 
apparatus. 

The  first  part  of  this  belongs  to  the  artist,  the 
other  to  the  photographer.  Photography  is  an 
art-science. 

•  When  a  model  is  placed  in  a  studio  lighted 
from  above  only,  one  observes,  whatever  be  the 
angle  of  light,  that  the  wrinkles  of  the  face  are 
exaggerated,  gi^dng  an  older,  harsher  appear- 
ance to  the  model ;  the  eyes  are  without  fire, 
sunken  ;  shadows  objectionably  dark  are  cast 
under  or  on  the  side  of  the  nose,  under  the 
lower  lip  and  the  chin,  whilst  the  hair,  being 
strongly  lighted,  appears  snowy  in  the  photo- 
graph. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  model  be  lighted 
entirely  by  a  side  light,  the  modele  is  injured, 
and  consequently  the  form,  the  features,  are 
much  altered.  The  eyes  are  dull  for  want  of 
contrasts,  the  delicate  shading  of  the  mouth 
disappears,  the  lighted  side  of  the  face  is  flat 
and  the  shaded  one  without  form  in  deep 
shadow  ;  the  whole  face,  in  a  word,  has  a  hatchet 
shape. 

Therefore,  to  lessen  these  effects  and  to  ob- 
tain a  suitable  lighting,  the  photographic  studio 


34 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 


should  be  constructed  with  a  top  and  side  light 
in  order  to  allow  one  to  combine  the  two  lights 
in  just  proportions  and  to  have  a  perfect  com- 
mand over  the  lighting. 

The  glass-house  represented  in  the  annexed 
figure  is  generally  recommended  by  artist- 
photographers. 


 U/eet.  

Fig.  1. 

The  room  is  14  feet  wide  by  12  feet  high,  and 
painted  orange-green,^  which  is  the  most  favor- 
able tint,  being  the  complimentary  color  of 
violet.  The  pitch  of  the  glazed  roof  (facing 
north)  is  about  47^  degrees.    The  side  light 

*  Prepared  by  mixing  orange  with  pea-green. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHO  I  OGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  35 

commences  two  feet  from  the  floor  and  rises 
seven  feet  above,  being  14  feet  wide,  which  is 
even  more  than  necessary.  The  room  should 
be  as  long  as  possible — 35  to  40  feet — to  allow 
the  use  of  long-focus  lenses  for  large  figures, 
groups,  etc. ,  in  order  to  avoid  exaggerated  fore- 
shortening, one  of  the  greatest  defects  usually 
seen  in  photographs.  As  to  the  glazing,  clear 
glass  is  generally  employed.  Ground  glass — 
polished  side  outward,  of  course — should  be 
selected  to  practically  get  rid  of  reflections, 
especially  from  brick  houses,  when  an  open  sky 
cannot  be  secured  ;  and  even  then,  for  the  top 
light  at  least,  such  glazing  produces  a  softer 
light  without  much  diminishing  its  strength, 
and  is  more  pleasant,  less  tiresome  to  the  eyes 
of  the  sitter. 

To  direct  and  regulate  the  light,  a  system  of 
spring  shades,  curtains  or  shutters  should  be 
adapted  to  the  glazed  side  and  roof  of  the  studio. 

The  most  simple  and  effective  arrangement 
to  control  the  side  light  consists  of  narrow 
spring  shaded  working  upwards  and  arranged 
in  sections  to  mask  the  light  partly  or  entirely. 
This  arrangement  is  well  known  and  explains 
itself.  The  material  must  not  be  white  or  blue, 
but  of  a  dark-gray  or  orange-green  color,  like 
the  wall  of  the  studio.  All  reflected  actinic 
light  should  be  avoided,  except  that  managed 
by  the  artist. 


36 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTCGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 


For  the  roof,  curtains  may  be  employed. 
They  are  troublesome  to  arrange  and  still  more 
troublesome  to  work  with  cords  and  pulleys. 
Mr.  Schaarwachter,  one  of  the  leading  photog- 
raphers of  Berlin,  Germany,  has  devised  an  in- 
genious system  for  fixing  and  moving  these 
curtains  with  the  greatest  ease,  which  Mr. 
Baden  Pritchard  thus  describes  :  ^ 

"  In  the  first  place,  Herr  Schaarwachter  has 
no  lines  or  -cords  for  the  moving  of  the  blinds 


or  curtains ;  these,  of  blue  linen,  hang  in  very 
loose  festoons  from  the  roof.  Brass  wires  run 
the  whole  length  of  the  glass  roof ;  they  are 
parallel,  and  perhaps  two  feet  apart.  They  are 
taut — that  is  necessary — in  the  same  way,  pretty 
nearly,  as  our  wire  fencing — that  is,  each  end 
of  the  wires  passes  over  a  roller  (a),  and  this 
round  a  wheel  furnished  with  a  cog  (d).  On 
the  face  of  the  cog-wheel  are  two  holes  (c)  into 

*  "  The  Studios  of  Europe,"  American  edition,  p.  228.  E.  &  H.  T. 
Anthony  &  Co. ,  New  York. 

We  must  observe  that  the  arrangement  of  curtains  attributed  to  Herr 
Schaarwachter  wag  first  devised  by  Mr.  Oscar  Mason,  the  distinguished 
photographer  at  Bellevue  Hospital. 


Fig.  2. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  37 

which  a  key,  or  winch,  fits  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  wire  taut.^  The  arrangement  can 
be  easily  understood  by  our  cut.  Fig.  2. 

It  is  necessary  that  brass  wires  be  employed, 
and  not  iron,  for  the  latter  rusts  and  then  loses 
its    smoothness,   and,   unless   the  wires  are 


Fig.  3. 

smooth,  the  curtain  rings  will  not  run  upon 
them  with  ease  and  facility,  for,  as  we  have 
said,  the  curtains  are  quite  loose  and  baggy. 

Above  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  roof 
(Fig.  3),  showing  how  the  wires  are  fitted  and 
how  the  curtains  are  arranged. 

aa,  aa,  are  sections  of  wires;  b,  b,  b,  the 
curtains,  which  are  hung  so  as  to  overlap  one 
another.  Herr  Schaarwachter  simply  uses  a 
light  bamboo  pole  to  manipulate  his  curtains. 


38  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

He  pushes  the  curtains  on  this  part  of  the  roof, 
or  makes  them  cover  that  part.^  The  rings  on 
the  stretched  brass  wires  move  with  exceeding 
facility,  and  a  more  simple  plan  of  manipulat- 
ing curtains  to  control  light  and  shade  cannot 
be  conceived."  Besides  this,  some  operators 
rightly  recommend  spring  shades  working  half 
way  upwards  and  half  way  downwards. 

Another  excellent  arrangement  to  direct  the 
light  is  a  system  of  shutters  about  two  feet 
wide,  revolving  on  pivots  or  on  hinges.  They 
are  made  of  tin  or  zinc,  painted  white  on  the 
side  facing  the  light  and  of  a  neutral  color  on 
the  other  ;  or  they  may  consist  of  light  frames 
with  calico  stretched  over  them  and  papered 
white  and  gray-green,  as  mentioned  above. 

Whatever  they  may  be,  those  fixed  on  the 
glass-roof  should  move  by  sections,  to  lighten 
at  will  any  part  of  the  studio,  by  means  of 
centre-pieces  fixed  to  each  other,  and  when  shut 
they  should  project  one  over  the  other.  This 
arrangement  is  similar  to  window-blinds. 

Generally  the  pitch  of  the  glass-roof  is  not  so 
inclined  as  to  prevent  the  sun  shining  in  the 
studio  at  mid-day  and  early  in  the  morning  in 
the  long  days  of  the  fine  season,  whereby  the 
dust  always  floating  in  the  air,  being  illuminat- 
ed by  the  direct  rays  of  light,  form  a  mist  in 
the  studio  which  obscures  the  model,  producing 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  39 

on  the  negative  an  effect  resembling  a  halo  or 
fogginess,  for  which  it  is  often  mistaken. 

This  should  be  obviated  ;  furthermore,  when 
the  sunbeam  does  not  fall  between  the  model 
and  the  camera,  as  in  the  case  cited  above,  it  is 
reflected  by  the  floor  and  walls  and  thus  badly 
interferes  with  the  lighting. 

Several  contrivances  have  been  devised  to 
that  end,  such  as  large  frameworks,  like  blinds, 
constructed  on  the  roof  at  the  end  and  sides  of 
the  glazed  part,  or  awnings  similarly  arranged, 
which  latter  are,  by-the-by,  objectionable  on 
account  of  the  wind,  and  necessitating  their 
being  moved  by  cords  and  pulleys. 

Light,  narrow  frames,  covered  with  mineral 
paper  of  good  quality  —  the  ordinary  kind 
rapidly  turns  yellow — revolving  on  pivots  and 
placed  inside  near  the  glass,  answer  quite  well ; 
moreover,  they  soften  the  light,  intercept  very 
little  of  it,  and  can  hang  down  when  the  sun 
no  longer  shines  on  the  roof.  This  arrange- 
ment is  suitable  when  the  roof  is  not  glazed 
with  ground-glass  and  the  light  not  controlled 
by  curtains,  spring  shades,  shutters,  etc.,  but  by 
movable  screens  ;  it  is  even  preferable,  for  it 
permits  one  using  the  light  from  the  clear  glass 
to  obtain  a  brighter  illumination. 

We  have  just  said  that  the  light  can  be  di- 
rected and  regulated  by  movable  screens  as 


40  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

well  as  by  curtains  and  other  contrivances  fixed 
to  the  roof  and  side  of  the  glass-house  ;  indeed, 
it  is  the  best  manner  of  contrasting  the  light  to 
obtain  delicacy  of  details  in  the  lights  and 
shades,  together  with  vigor  and  effect,  in  a  pho- 
tographic studio.  Place  a  model  under  the 
light,  the  face  a  little  turned  away  from  the 
side  light — which  is  a  general  rule — and  at  a 
certain  distance  from  it,  as  it  should  be ;  now, 
no  matter  how  the  light  is  distributed  by  the 
curtains  or  shutters,  one  side  will  always  be 
brightl)^  lighted,  while  on  the  other  the  shadows 
will  be  too  deep.  Look  at  the  face  of  the 
model,  you  can  hardly  see  any  modeM  on  the 
shadowed  side  ;  but  if  we  interpose  a  tinted 
cardboard  near  the  lighted  side  so  as  to  some- 
what obscure  it,  immediately  all  the  details  in 
the  shadow  become  visible.  Hence,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  it  is  not  the  shadow  which  is  too 
strong,  but  that  it  is  the  lighted  part  which 
dazzles  us  by  its  brightness.  Of  course  this 
effect  will  equally  be  reproduced  in  the  nega- 
tive. It  will  even  be  exaggerated,  for  not  only 
the  lens  concentrates  the  light,  but  strong  and 
weak  lights  do  not  impress  the  silver  compound 
according  to  their  relative  value,  the  former 
acting  more  energetically  than  the  latter  in 
comparison.  Therefore  the  light  should  be  bet- 
ter distributed  to  avoid  this  objectionable  oppo- 


THE  LIGHTING  IN   PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  41 

sition  of  light  and  shade,  not  by  turning  the 
face  of  the  model  to  the  light,  which  would 
flatten  it ;  not  by  white  reflectors,  to  throw  light 
on  the  shadow,  which  would  destroy  the  modele 
and  project  a  false  light  (one  which  comes  from 
another  direction),  but  by  screens  to  soften  cer- 
tain parts  by  forcing,  so  to  say,  the  light  to  be 
diverted  from  its  original  direction  and  to  be- 
come diffused  around  the  model. 

Various  movable  screens  are  emplo3^ed  to 
thus  regulate  the  light.  All  those  described 
further  on  have  their  utility  and  should  be 
at  hand  in  every  studio. 

To  prevent  the  light  falling  directly  from 
above  on  the  head  of  the  model,  and  therefore 
casting  deep  shadows  under  the  eyes,  the  chin, 
etc. ,  or  to  throw  a  shadow  on  the  hair,  in  order 
that  the  model  does  not  look  light-haired,  a 
head-screen  is  employed.  It  is  simply  a  light 
wooden  frame,  about  three  feet  by  two,  covered 
with  pale  rose  muslin,  and  fixed  like  a  head- 
rest, to  permit  one  to  turn  it  at  any  angle,  side- 
ways, downward  or  upward,  and  to  move  it  up 
at  any  distance  over  the  head  of  the  model 
posed  either  in  a  sitting  or  standing  attitude. 

Next  comes  a  screen  about  forty  inches  wide, 
six  or  seven  feet  high,  over  which  is  attached 
by  hinges  another  light  screen  or  canopy  of 
about  the  same  length,  which  can  be  height- 


42  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

ened  to  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  or 
lowered  by  means  of  a  sliding  arc,  as  seen  in 
Fig.  4. 

This  screen  canopy  is  covered  with  light  rose 
or  pink  very  transparent  muslin,  on  the  side, 
semi-opaque  on  the  top,  and  serves  to  control 


Fig.  4. 


both  side  and  top  light  instead  of  by  the  use  of 
curtains. 

Not  less  useful  are  the  head  side-screen  and 
the  upright  side-screen.  The  former,  devised 
by  the  writer,  is  a  thin  wooden  hoop  about 


THE  LIGHIING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 


43 


eight  inches  in  diameter,  covered  with  rose 
muslin,  allowing  a  great  deal  of  light  to  pass, 
and  attached  to  a  head-rest.'^  It  exclusively 
serves  to  soften  the  lighting  of  the  face  by  a 
slightly  non-actinic  color.  The  latter,  equally 
covered  with  the  same  material,  serves  a  similar 
purpose,  but  less  effectively,  for  it  also  attenu- 
ates the  white  light  reflected  from  the  draperies, 
which  generally  should  be  avoided.  It  is  excel- 
lent, however,  to  direct  the  light,  when  placed 
obliquely,  to  allow  more  side  light  in  advance 
of  the  model. 

It  would  be  a  great  error  to  think  that  modify- 
ing the  quality  of  the  light  by  means  of  the 
head-screen  and  by  the  side  colored  screen  ne- 
cessitates lengthening  the  exposure,  for  one 
must  expose  long  enough  to  obtain  details  in 
the  draperies,  generally  of  a  less  actinic  color 
than  the  skin.  Hence,  in  "coloring"  the  light 
illuminating  the  face,  only,t  by  ''filtering"  it 
through  a  colored  medium,  the  half  lights  ac- 
centuating the  modeles  are  preserved,  solariza- 
tion  is  avoided,  and,  the  darker  and  semi-dark 
shadows  \>€\vl^  photographically  in  just  propor- 
tion, there  is  no  necessity  for  the  use  of  the 
always  objectionable  white  reflectors. 

*  The  head  and  side  head-screens  should  be  independent,  /.<?.,  not 
adapted  to  the  same  rest. 

f  That  is,  the  side  of  the  face  in  the  light — opposite  to  the  shadowed 
part. 


44  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

Lastly,  two  opaque  reflectors,  about  four  feet 
high  and  three  feet  wide,  should  be  provided. 
They  must  move  on  pivots  and  be  covered 
on  one  side  with  white  calico,  to  reflect  white 
light  on  dark  dresses,  and  on  the  other  with 
a  material  reflecting  a  non-actinic  color  to 
darken  light  ones. 

As  to  the  movable  head  reflector,  used  to  soften 
the  shadows,  it  will  be  described  further  on. 


CHAPTER  V. 


The  Backgrounds. 

We  have  shown  in  one  of  the  preceding  chap- 
ters that  the  lighting  of  the  background  has  a 
very  great  importance  in  relieving  the  lights 
and  shades  by  their  opposition.  The  brilliant 
and  artistic  effects  which  can  be  produced  by 
this  artifice  most  photographers  do  not  take  a'd- 
vantage  of,  their  aim  being  to  obtain  as  clean 
and  evenly  lighted  a  ground  as  possible  to  show 
the  perfection  of  their  photographic  operation. 
The  result  is  that  the  figure  appears  inlaid, 
pasted,  so  to  speak,  on  the  ground. 

When  treating  this  subject  it  was  observed 
that  the  shadow  should  be  cast  on  the  back- 
ground at  an  angle  'analogous  to  that  of  the 
light  falling  on  the  model,  which,  of  course,  is 
very  like  the  effect  produced  in  nature.  How- 
ever, a  background  shaded  vertically  is  no  less 
artistic  and  effective  in  imparting  variety,  effect 
and  stability  to  the  picture.  Examples  could 
be  cited  amongst  the  works  of  the  great  mas- 
ters ;  it  suffices  to  call  the  attention  of  the  stu- 
dent to  the  manner  of  relieving  light  and  shade 
by  a  master  in  our  art,  Adam  Salomon,  by 


46  THK  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

means  of  a  circular  alcove  background  of  his 
invention,  which  will  be  described  in  the  fol- 
lowing lines. 

The  diagonal  lighting  of  the  ground  is  not 
possible  in  the  studio.  The  reason  is  obvious. 
To  produce  that  effect  the  background  should 
be  painted,  casting  a  dark  shadow  across  the 
upper  corner  near  the  side  light  of  the  studio, 
and  graduating  it  to  a  middle  tint  melting  into 
a  shadow,  to  break  the  evenness  of  an  uniform 
diagonal  shading  all  over  the  ground.  To  re- 
lieve the  figure  by  opposition  of  light  to  light, 
and  shadow  to  shadow,  the  background  should 
De  shaded  in  the  opposite  manner. 

An  effective  background  for  busts  (vignetted 
or  not)  consists  in  painting  dark  clouds  in  the 
centre  and  blending  them  by  feathery  clouds  on 
a  light  tinted  ground,  the  whole  forming  a  pear- 
shaped  vignette.  This  background  should  be 
made  so  as  to  be  raised  or  lowered  at  will,  in 
order  to  place  the  clouds  properly  around  the 
body  of  the  model. 

The  background  usually  employed  is  made 
by  stretching  on  one  side  of  a  frame  a  woolen 
cloth  (especially  made  for  that  purpose)  of  a 
medium  tint,  and  on  the  other  side  the  same 
material,  but  of  a  darker  shade,  to  be  used  ac- 
cording to  the  more  or  less  actinic  color  of  the 
dress  of  the  model.    The  background  may  be 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  47 

encased  in  a  framework  and  revolve  backwards 
and  forwards  on  pivots,  thus  allowing  one  to 
place  the  upper  part  in  the  light  and  the  other 
in  the  shadow,  or  to  produce  the  opposite  effect 
of  light  and  shade. 

This  background  can  also  be  placed  ob- 
liquel3^  so  that  that  part  opposite  to  the  lighted 
part  of  the  model  stands  in  the  shade,  while  the 
other,  being  in  the  light,  contrasts  with  the 
shaded  side. 

Mr.  Adam  Salomon's  ''circular  alcove  back- 
ground,'' as  it  is  termed,  is  peculiar  and  exceed- 
ingly well  adapted  for  producing  every  effect  of 
light  and  shade.  It  is  not  only  a  background, 
but  also  a  posing  and  lighting  apparatus  by 
itself,  which  almost  dispenses  with  the  incum- 
brance of  troublesome  curtains,  shades,  and 
other  contrivances  fixed  on  the  top  and  side 
lights.  Its  construction  and  use  are  thus  de- 
scribed : 

A  is  the  semi-circular  background,  about 
eight  feet  high,  ten  feet  wide  and  five  feet  deep 
from  front  to  back.    (Fig.  5.) 

B  B  are  folding  wings,  about  four  feet  wide, 
hinged  to  the  background. 

C  is  a  corresponding  canopy,  ten  feet  long,- 
four  feet  wide,  hinged  to  the  top. 

Another  canopy,  D  D,  covers  the  background. 
It  is  in  two  parts,  hinged  in  the  middle. 


48 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 


The  post,  E,  carries  a  pulley  at  the  top,  over 
which  pass  cords  connected  with  the  different 
canopies  and  fastened  at  the  back  so  as  to  be 
raised  and  lowered  at  will. 

The  circular  background,  A,  is  covered  with 
salmon-colored  printing  paper.    It  has  three 


feet  provided  with  large  castors,  not  represent- 
ed in  the  cut.  The  canopies  and  wings  are 
lined  with  thin,  quite  transparent  muslin,  and 
at  the  corners,  between  the  upper  canopy  (C) 
and  the  wings,  B  and  B,  the  muslin  is  con- 
tinued to  fill  up  the  spaces. 

The  sitter  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  circle 
of  which  the  background  curve  forms  half,  just 
under  the  hinged  part  of  the  front  canopy, 
which,  we  may  suppose,  is  down,  and  the  wings 


Fig.  5. 


1^ 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 


49 


just  so  much  closed  as  to  form  a  rectangular 
opening  to  the  alcove.  He  is  now  sheltered 
from  any  direct  illumination,  a  soft,  diffused 
light  surrounding  the  figure.  A  slight  elevation 
of  the  canopy,  C,  at  once  admits  a  portion  of 
direct  top  light,  the  amount  and  effect  of  which 
can  be  regulated  accurately  without  the  opera- 
tor needing  to  stir  from  the  spot  at  which  he 
marks  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  on  his 
model.  In  like  manner  the  proportion  of  direct 
side  light  at  either  side  is  modified  in  any 
desired  degree  by  the  opening  and  closing  of 
the  wings,  B  B.  Still  more  than  this  can  be 
done  in  shutting  off  a  volume  of  direct  light 
from  the  model,  who  in  all  cases  remains  quite 
stationary,  retaining  the  desirable  position  first 
given  to  it.  When  the  flood  of  light  reaching 
the  sitter  is  great  and  the  mere  use  of  the  wings 
is  insufficient  to  control  it,  then  the  whole  frame 
is  made  to  move  round  the  sitter  as  a  centre 
(which,  running  on  large  casters,  is  easily 
effected),  and  the  sitter  is  entirely  screened  from 
the  light  on  one  side  or  on  the  other,  as  may  be 
desired.  If  direct  light  be  shining  on  the  sitter, 
it  can  be  quite  cut  off  in  this  way,  or  it  can  be 
utilized  by  interposing  one  of  the  side  wings, 
which,  being  covered  with  thin  muslin,  will 
filter,  as  it  were,  and  distribute  the  light  with- 
out quite  intercepting  it.    The  sitter  being 


50  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

placed  in  position  and  lighted,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  light  on  the  niche-like  background 
will  necessarily  give  some  degree  of  gradation 
of  light  and  shade,  which  will  impart  to  the 
figure  relief  and  indicate  space  around  it.  But 
there  is  another  considerable  power  to  be  used 
for  the  purpose,  to  which  we  have  not  yet 
referred.  The  canopy,  D  D,  is,  as  we  have 
said,  hinged  in  the  middle  and  open  from  the 
outer  side.  If  both  sides  were  open  the  back- 
ground would  be  perfectly  illuminated  from  the 
top,  and  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  obtained 
from  the  sides  would  be  very  much  neutralized. 
If  both  sides  were  closed,  as  represented  in  the 
figure,  the  background  would  be  dark,  but  with 
a  broad  effect  of  light  and  shade  produced  by 
the  dominant  light  in  advance  of  it ;  but  if 
special  effects  of  light  and  shade  are  desired 
on  the  background,  the  amount  of  light  and 
its  direction  falling  upon  the  background  can 
be  governed  to  any  degree  without  interfering 
with  the  lighting  of  the  model.  Either  side  of 
the  canopy,  D  D,  can  be  opened  to  admit  just 
such  portion  of  light  as  may  be  found  best  to 
secure  relief  to  the  figure  and  complete  the  bal- 
ance of  light  and  shade  in  the  picture. 

When  a  full-length  picture  is  required,  the 
termination  of  perspective  lines,  as  will  readily 
be  seen,  especially  if  the  carpet  has  a  definite 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  5 1 

pattern,'"'  would  appear  unpleasing,  giving  a 
curved  line  across  the  plate.  To  remove  this 
unsatisfactory  effect  a  movable  dado  may  be 
employed,  which  is  placed  behind  the  sitter, 
within  the  curve  of  the  background.  This  ar- 
rangement is  satisfactory.  It  need  not  be  high 
or  represent  anything  more  pronounced  than 
an  ordinary  skirting-board,  f 

This  background  can  be  made  at  the  cost  of 
about  fifteen  dollars.  To  construct  it,  two  curved 
pieces  of  wood  for  the  top  and  bottom  are  con- 
nected by  thin,  upright  boards,  tongued  and 
grooved  into  each  other,  while  the  wings  and 
canopy  are  formed  of  light  frame-work  covered 
as  already  explained. 

In  the  alcove  background  furniture  and  acces- 
sories can  be  introduced,  for  it  is  a  mistake  to 
suppose  that  a  plain  ground  shaded  to  relieve 
the  light  and  shade  is  not  fit  for  an  interior. 
The  alcove  also  admits  the  use  of  slips,  if  there 
be  any  objection  to  a  simple  interior.  Of  course 
landscapes  cannot  be  used  with  advantage ; 
therefore,  to  light  the  model  represented  in  the 
open  air,  the  screens  before  described  should  be 
employed. 

With  backgrounds  of  interiors  and  landscapes 


*Such  carpets  are  quite  objectionable,  just  as  well  as  dazzling  furni- 
niture  and  accessories. 

\  Photo.  News,  vol.  xiv.  (1870),  p.  566. 


52  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

lie  the  greatest  difficulties  the  photographer  en- 
counters in  composing  a  picture,  for  unless  the 
background  be  appropriate  to  the  subject,  and 
its  lighting  balances  that  of  the  model  and  con- 
trasts with  the  color  of  the  dress,  the  effect  is 
not  good — often  ridiculous  ;  moreover,  in  three- 
quarter  and  large  figures  they  are  always  badly 
out  of  focus  and  entirely  spoil  the  effect.  They 
should  be  introduced  only  in  groups  or  in  full- 
length  portraits. 

On  this  subject — and  on  the  accessories — no 
advice  can  be  given.  It  should  be  left  to  the 
artistic  taste  and  judgment  of  the  photographer. 
It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  accessories 
should  be  real,  simple,  and  the  backgrounds  not 
much  elaborated,  in  order  not  to  distract  the 
attention,  and  conceived  after  the  manner  of 
portrait  painters,  who,  well  knowing  their  im- 
portance, consider  that  part  of  the  picture  as 
difficult  to  treat  as  the  portrait  itself.  Here  is  a 
painting  by  Re3molds  :  on  one  side  is  a  charm- 
ing little  miss  attired  in  light  garments  and  sit- 
ting on  the  ground  under  the  dark-colored 
foliage  of  autumn,  which  relieves  the  admirable 
lighting  of  the  child  and  strongly  contrasts  with 
the  luminous  landscape  in  the  distance.  The 
works  of  Reynolds  abound  in  such  excellent 
examples  for  the  treatment  of  backgrounds. 

Generally  backgrounds  of  interiors  and  acces- 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  53 

sories  are  much  abused  by  photographers  ;  the 
sitter  is  never  represented,  as  he  should  be,  ' '  in 
an  ordinary  room  with  ordinary  furniture,"  but 
often  in  parlors  of  the  past  centuries.  This  is 
objectionable. 

The  architecture  characterizes  a  certain  epoch 
in  the  life  of  a  nation,  the  genius  of  the  people, 
the  social  state  at  the  time,  the  moral  tempera- 
ture, so  to  say,  and  the  costumes  are  in  perfect 
accordance.  In  the  Alhambra  we  see  the  Moors ; 
in  the  Gothic  manors  the  knights  and  the  Black 
Prince  ;  in  the  magnificent  halls  of  the  renais- 
sance, Henry  11.  of  France  and  his  court.  An 
artist  will  never  have  the  ridiculous  idea  of  rep- 
resenting us  in  those  palaces.  Let  the  archi- 
tecture, the  decorations  and  accessories  be  mod- 
ern and  appropriate  to  the  condition  and  profes- 
sion of  the  model.  Represent  the  farmers 
daughter  in  her  simple  and  pretty  cottage,  the 
chemist  in  his  laboratory,  the  savant  in  his 
library.  A  priest  may  be  represented  in  a  semi- 
lighted  Roman  or  Gothic  hall,  which  is  quite 
appropriate  to  his  character,  his  costume  and 
place  of  ministry.  In  a  word,  represent  us  at 
home. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


The  Lighting  of  the  Model. 

The  lighting  of  the  model  cannot  be  reduced 
to  a  system.  There  are,  however,  certain  rules 
to  be  observed  in  a  photographic  studio. 

In  the  first  place,  the  model  should  not  be 
posed  to  suit  the  camera — which  is  a  common 
fault  with  many  operators — but  to  suit  the  light, 
and  the  camera  so  placed  as  to  take  the  best 
view  of  the  composition. 

Another  fault  is  to  let  the  light  play  all  over 
the  studio  in  order  to  shorten  the  time  of  expo- 
sure, for  only  a  certain  quantity  of  light  falls 
on  the  model  and  acts  effectively,  whilst  the 
rest,  being  diffused  in  the  studio  and  reflected 
by  the  floor  and  the  walls,  injures  the  modele  or 
half-lights  in  the  illuminated  parts  and  flattens 
the  shadows.  Hence,  all  extraneous  light,  all 
which  is  not  actually  useful  to  light  the  model, 
should  be  excluded,  as  well  as  all  reflections 
but  those  which  are  purposely  arranged  to  give 
effect. 

This  is  important ;  moreover,  it  permits  one 


*  For  a  bright  illumination,  about  eight  feet  of  side  and  top  light  in 
advance  of  the  model  are  sufficient. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  55 

to  direct  the  eyes  of  the  model  to  the  obscured 
part  of  the  studio,  thus  causing  the  pupils  to 
expand  and  avoiding  the  painful  sensation 
which  results  from  looking  at  an  object  in  a 
strong  light,  the  expression  being  thereby  seri- 
ously affected. 

Where  should  the  model  be  placed  ?  Certain- 
ly not  with  the  face  directly  turned  towards 
the  light.  Front  light  gives  flatness  to  the 
features,  imparts  an  insipid  expression  and  pro- 
duces a  large  reflection  to  the  eyes,  giving  the 
appearence  of  blindness.  This  latter  defect  can 
be  noticed  in  many  photographs,  especially  those 
lighted  a  la  Rembrandt,  though  more  or  less 
diminished  by  retouching — that  great  but  ques- 
tionable remedy  for  imperfect  lighting. 

If  in  about  the  centre  of  the  studio,  under 
the  light,  one  regulates  the  top  and  side  lights 
by  means  of  transparent  curtains  or  screens  to 
produce  a  soft,  not  too  diffused  illumination, 
and  places  the  model  under  it,  the  light  plays 
harmoniously  around  the  sitter,  and  is  dissolved 
in  the  ensemble,  the  shadows  being  softened  by 
the  penumbra.  This  lighting  has,  however, 
sometimes  too  much  sameness,  and  is  without 
effect ;  but  if,  then,  we  direct  at  a  certain  angle 
a  beam  of  direct  light  both  from  the  top  and 
side  lights  on  the  model  and  in  advance  of  him, 
stronger  shadows  are  thrown  on  the  receding 


56  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

parts,  the  prominent  parts  are  more  brightly 
lighted,  and  a  broad,  vigorous  lighting  pro- 
duced, which  if  contrasted  with  that  of  the 
background  will  be  quite  effective. 

In  thus  lighting  the  model  the  head  screen  is 
useful,  while  a  reflector  is  seldom  needed.  If 
necessary  it  should  be  placed  at  a  certain  dis- 
tance from  the  model,  a  little  backward,  in 
order  to  give  transparency  to  the  shadows  with- 
out producing  a  false  illumination. 

The  principle  of  this  mode  of  lighting  is  to 
illuminate  the  model  in  gradation  to  show  well 
the  modelling  of  the  face,  then  to  direct  a  ray 
of  light  to  produce  roundness  and  relief  by 
illuminating  the  more  prominent  parts,  and  to 
project  stronger  shadows  to  obtain  vigor  and 
brilliancy.  In  proceeding  thus  the  lighting  is 
pretty  well  under  control. 

Observe  that  one  light  should  predominate. 
Two  equally  bright  lights  neutralize  each  other 
and  therefore  injure  the  modeU,  The  light 
from  above  should  be  the  strongest.  Observe, 
also,,  that  a  horizontal  light  is  equally  destruc- 
tive of  the  modele  unless  properly  subdued,  and 
even  then  the  effect  is  seldom  good.  The  side 
light  as  a  rule,  should  reach  the  model  at  an 
angle  of  from  fifteen  degrees  to  twenty-five 
degrees  in  advance  of  him,  for  the  same  reason. 

In  the  example  of  lighting  above  given,  we 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  57 

should  remark  that  colored  screens  are  recom- 
mended. The  reason  is,  that  a  white  screen 
softens  the  light  to  excess,  producing  flatness, 
and  does  not  control  it  effectively.  For  the  lat- 
ter purpose  a  semi-opaque  screen  will  be  found 
more  useful.  This  was  demonstrated  by  Mr. 
Kent  at  the  third  convention  of  the  Photogra- 
phers' Association  of  America,  and,  strange  to 
say,  little  notice  seems  to  have  been  taken  of 
this  useful  manner  of  directing  the  light.'''* 

The  light  is  directed  and  controlled  by  Mr. 
Kent  with  a  frame  about  thirty  inches  square 
covered  with  muslin,  or  thin  calico,  and  fixed 
to  a  light  wooden  handle  about  nine  feet  long. 
The  photographer,  standing  near  the  camera, 
holds  it  over  the  head  of  the  model,  and  by 
raising  or  lowering  it,  by  moving  it  to  the  left 
or  to  the  right,  regulates  the  light,  and  when 
the  proper  effect  is  produced  an  assistant  exposes 
the  plate. 

This  apparatus  is  not  without  objections,  and 
not  very  handy,  but  as  a  means  of  distributing 
the  light  it  is  excellent.  It  has  been  replaced 
by  the  head-screen  before  described,  which  can 
be  inclined  upward  and  forward,  turned  to  any 
angle  and  placed  near  the  sitter  at  a  certain  dis- 
tance out  of  sight  of  the  lens. 

Let  us  make  an  essay  of  lighting  with  it. 

*  Anthony's  Photographic  Bulletin,  vol.  xiv.  (1883),  p.  264  et  seq. 


m 


58  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

Pose  the  model  near  the  centre  of  the  studio 
under  the  top  light,  so  that  the  light  plays  all 
around  him,  using  now  little  side  light ;  turn 
the  head  slightly  away  from  the  light  and  place 
the  camera  diagonally  to  obtain,  say,  a  three- 
quarter  view  of  the  face.  In  this  position  the 
shadows  under  the  eyebrows,  the  lips,  etc.,  are 
exaggerated  as  well  as  the  wrinkles,  but  the 
moment  a  semi-opaque  head-screen  is  placed 
over  the  head  of  the  model  the  rays  of  light 
falling  perpendicularly  upon  it,  are  diverted 
from  their  course,  and  being  diffused  around 
the  figure  attentuate  the  shadows  and  illumi- 
nate the  whole  with  soft  gradations. 

B}^  raising  or  lowering  the  screen,  or  by  turn- 
ing it  to  a  certain  angle,  the  lighting  is  altered 
at  will,  being  softened  or  rendered  more  vig- 
orous. If  the  face  were  not  well  in  relief,  too 
flat,  more  direct  side  light  from  above  should 
be  thrown  on  the  model  a  little  in  front  of  it, 
which  will  accentuate  the  half  tints  at  the  same 
time  that  it  will  cast  more  shadow  on  the  op- 
posite side.  Or  the  screen  may  be  inclined  up- 
ward to  the  shadowed  side  to  admit  more  top 
light,  whereby  more  contrasts  will  also  be  ob- 
tained. If  it  happens  that  the  shadows  are  too 
dark  they  may  be  softened  either  by  the  use  of 
the  side  transparent  screen,  to  lessen  the  oppo- 
sition of  light  and  shade,  or,  better  in  this  ex- 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  59 

ample  of  lighting,  by  a  light  rose  or  blue  re- 
flector placed  so  as  not  to  project  a  false  lumi- 
nous point  in  the  eyes.  For  this  purpose  a 
small  movable  concave  reflector  which  can  be 
raised  to  any  height  and  turned  tp  any  angle, 
as  advised  by  Mr.  Klary,  is  most  convenient. 
This  head-reflector  may  be  fixed  to  a  head- 
rest just  as  the  head-screen,  so  as  to  be  raised 
to  reflect  the  light  downward  instead  of  up- 
ward, as  by  those  ordinarily  employed.  It  is 
not  so  objectionable,  therefore,  if  judiciously 
handled,  to  give  transparency  to  the  dark  shad- 
ows without  showing  the  secondary  light  thus 
projected  on  the  model. 

This  mode  of  lighting  by  the  side  and  head- 
screens  is  recommended  to  the  student.  With 
them  one  can  produce  with  the  greatest  ease 
almost  any  effect  of  light  and  shade.  It  is 
when  the  studio  is  lighted  only  from  a  glazed 
roof,  or  when  the  model  is  posed  with  the  head 
turned  to  the  upper  light,  that  the  head-screen 
is  quite  indispensable.  Lately  we  have  seen 
made  by  a  photographer,  a  true  artist  whose 
works  are  ordinarily  of  a  high  order,  the  por- 
trait of  a  celebrated  comedian  dressed  a  la 
Louis- Quatorze  and  reclining  on  a  chair.  The 
face  on  which  the  light  falls  from  above  is  flat, 
without  character  ;  all  the  meplats  are  drowned 
in  the  light.    Had  he  employed  a  colored  semi- 


6o  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

Opaque,  or  even  an  opaque  head-screen  or  a 
canopy,  to  attenuate  the  brightness  of  the 
illumination  and  to  direct  the  light,  the  picture 
would  have  been  exceedingly  improved  with- 
out it  being  necessary  to  lengthen  the  time  of 
exposure. 

The  lighting  d  la  Rembrandt  of  the  photog- 
raphers is  very  difficult  to  treat.  This  style 
never  was  employed  by  portrait  painters. 
Those  exaggerated  contrasts  of  light  and  dark- 
ness no  more  pertain  to  the  composition  of  a 
portrait  than  those  precieuses  and  manierees  at- 
titudes and  theatrical  poses  so  much  a  la  mode 
nowadays,  for,  strange  to  say,  there  is  a  fashion 
in  photography  also  ! 

Indeed,  we  cannot  too  much  impress  on  the 
mind  of  the  student  that  to  make  a is 
not  to  represent  an  action.  The  law  of  the 
measure  in  the  expression  and  movement  is  an 
essential  law  in  the  fine  arts  which  applies 
essentially  to  portraiture.  A  simple  attitude, 
the  lines  harmonious,  repose,  unity,  what  more 
is  necessary  to  produce  effect  ?  These  qualities 
are  those  of  the  splendid  models  left  to  us  by 
the  artists  of  ancient  Greece,  without  which 
the  true  elegance  and  beauty  of  the  human 
figure  would  never  have  been  known,  perhaps. 
Such  are  also  the  qualities  of  the  great  artists  of 
the  Renaissance  and  of  those  of  our  time.  Study 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  6l 

the  portraits  by  artists,  of  no  matter  what 
school  they  belong  to,  and  you  will  be  aston- 
ished to  see  that  the  same  attitude  is  repeated 
with  little  variation — the  head  and  body  being 
slightly  turned,  sometimes  in  opposite  direc- 
tions— and  that  the  character  of  the  picture 
resides  entirely  in  the  true  representation  of 
the  individuality  of  the  person  ;  the  draperies, 
the  accessories  and  the  grounds  being  treated 
with  the  importance  they  merit  to  repeat  the 
lines  and  the  light,  to  produce  contrasts — in  a 
word  to  place  the  model  en  scene,  the  face  being 
always  the  centre  of  attraction  and  of  illumi- 
nation. 

To  light  a  model  in  the  style  in  question — 
that  is,  one  side  of  the  head  in  the  light  and  the 
other  wholly  in  the  shadow,  the  latter  being  the 
broad  side — three  causes  of  defect  should  be 
avoided.  First,  too  great  an  opposition  of  light 
and  shade ;  then  flatness  in  the  shadowed  side 
and  solarization  in  the  high  lights  ;  lastly,  the 
use  of  an  ordinary  white  reflector,  which,  as 
before  stated,  reflects  the  light  upwards,  caus- 
ing a  false  illumination,  flattening  the  half- 
tints,  and  projecting  an  objectionable  reflection 
in  the  eyes. 

Here  is  a  manner  of  lighting  d  la  Rem- 
brandt: The  model  is  placed  in  the  centre  and 
under  the  light,  near  the  side  light — about  six 


62  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

feet  from  it — and  the  head  turned  a  little  diag- 
onally to  the  light.  The  side  light  just  oppo- 
site to  the  face  of  the  model  being  shut  off  by 
raising  the  shade,  while  that  in  front  of  it 
should  not  be,  in  order  to  illuminate  the  face 
obliquely,  letting  the  top  light  predominate.  If 
in  that  position  the  shaded  side  is  still  deficient 
in  gradation,  it  should  be  relieved  by  directing 
light  by  means  of  the  concave  head  reflector 
placed  a  little  above  the  head,  in  order  to  reflect 
the  light  downward  in  a  direction  almost  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  original  light.  The  head- 
screen  also  comes  into  play  to  protect  the  hair 
and  to  cast  a  diffused  light  or  shadow  on  the 
lighted  part  of  the  face,  in  order  to  avoid  too 
great  a  contrast  of  light  and  thus  to  prevent 
solarization.  The  side  colored  screen  may 
equally  be  employed  for  the  latter  purpose. 
This  arrangement  requires  practice  to  produce 
proper  effects.  As  to  the  background,  care 
should  be  taken  to  oppose  light  to  shade  and 
shade  to  light,  to  relieve  the  whole  figure. 
Rembrandts  can,  of  course,  be  obtained  in 
other  positions  and  the  opposite  lighting  of  the 
ground.  But  whatever  be  the  arrangement  se- 
lected, this  mode  of  lighting  does  not  admit  of 
much  variety.  The  effect  is  always  the  same, 
or  nearly  so.  These  portraits,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  writer,  should  not  be  vignetted,  else  the 
effect  is  destroyed. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  63 

A  three-quarter  bust  portrait  is  the  most 
facile  composition  to  light  well  in  a  photo- 
graphic studio.  It  is  also  that  which  is  the  most 
becoming.  The  reason  is  obvious.  As  to  direct 
profiles,  the  lighting  presents  more  difficulties. 
If  the  model  be  turned  away  from  the  light,  too 
great  contrasts,  which  impart  hardness  to  the 
features,  are  the  result ;  moreover,  the  eyes  are 
badly  illuminated,  and  the  whole,  being  lighted 
from  the  back,  seldom  forms  an  artistic  and 
pleasing  picture.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
turned  to  the  light  the  opposite  effect  is  pro- 
duced, the  face  being  flat  and  the  expression 
insipid.  One  of  the  best  methods,  perhaps,  of 
directing  the  light  in  this  case  is  the  following  : 
Leave  but  a  small  space,  about  five  feet  wide,  of 
clear  glass  on  the  glazed  roof,  and  draw  up  the 
shades  of  the  side  light — two  of  them,  proba- 
bly, to  have  about  the  same  space  of  clear  glass 
as  on  the  roof — so  that  the  light  falls  on  the 
model  at  a  certain  angle.  Now  place  the  model 
a  little  backward  from  the  source  of  light,  the 
head  turned  to  the  side  light  diagonally.  In 
this  position  the  light  falls  obliquely  on  the 
face,  illuminates  the  arc  of  the  nose,  and  dif- 
fuses to  shadow  in  the  receding  parts  of  the 
head,  which  therefore  stands  well  in  relief. 
Alter,  then,  the  lighting  with  the  side  and  head- 
screens  to  produce  a  softer  gradation,  if  neces- 


64  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

sary,  or  increase  the  contrasts  according  to  the 
features  of  the  model,  by  allowing  more  top 
light  or  less  side  light ;  but  be  careful  not  to 
project  a  strong  light  from  the  back  of  ^  the 
figure  with  reflectors,  which  would  destroy  the 
modelling.  This  lighting  can  of  course  be  ap- 
plied to  all  the  modifications  from  the  three- 
quarter  to  the  direct  profile  by  simply  changing 
the  position  of  the  camera.  Another  manner 
of  lighting  a  profile,  quite  effective  when  the 
e3^ebrows  are  not  pronounced,  is  to  direct  the 
side  light  a  little  from  behind  the  model  at 
about  the  same  angle  as  that  from  the  top,  and 
making  the  necessary  alterations  with  screens, 
etc.  The  eyes,  in  the  case  in  question,  are  bet- 
ter lighted  and  the  relief  good. 

There  is  a  style  of  picture  ' '  suitable  for  ladies 
and  pretty  to  a  degree,"  the  specialty  of  the 
Maison  Joliet,  in  Paris,  which  is  almost  un- 
known in  New  York.  We  refer  to  the  cartes 
russes,  or  vignetted  bust  pictures  on  a  black 
ground."^* 

Here  (says  Mr.  Baden  Pritchard,  describing 
in  his  interesting  work,  ' '  The  Studios  of 
Europe,"  the  manner  in  which  those  cartes  are 
made)  there  is  a  background  of  a  dark-red 
color,  so  dark  that  it  scarcely  appears  red  at  all. 


*  Cartes  russes  are  now  made  in  New  York,  but  they  are  far  from 
being  as  beautiful  as  those  made  in  France. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDOIS.  65 

To  produce  the  cartes  russes  the  sitter  is  placed 
some  eight  feet  from  this  background,  so  as  to 
permit  plenty  of  light  to  intervene  between  it 
and  the  model ;  the  result  is,  that  the  finished 
picture  has  something  of  a  Rembrandt  look,  the 
features  rounded  and  standing  out  well  in  re- 
lief. On  the  shadow  side  of  the  sitter  either 
white  or  blue  curtains  are  arranged  to  reflect 
back  the  light,  and  not  to  permit  too  much 
shade  on  this  side  of  the  face.^'  A  negative 
taken  under  these  circumstances  does  not  re- 
quire to  be  manipulated  at  all  so  far  as  face  and 
shoulders  are  concerned,  since  these  stand  out 
boldly  from  the  background  when  the  negative 
is  printed  ;  but  some  skill  is  necessary  to  cut  off 
the  bust  and  print  the  paper  black  below  the 
portrait.  Portraits  produced  in  this  way,  es- 
pecially of  ladies  in  light  summer  or  ball-room 
dress,  are  exceedingly  effective.  Costumes  in 
white,  blue,  violet,  mauve,  rose,  and  light  gray 
are  to  be  chosen  for  cartes  russes. 

The  reader  understands  that  the  model  can 
be  lighted  with  great  ease  for  the  cartes  russes 
by  the  head-screen  or  canopy  and  the  movable 
head-reflector.    Any  lighting  answers  well,  but 


*  This  reflection  to  lessen  the  shadow  generally  spoils  the  modele. 
The  shadowed  side  may  be  softened  by  placing  the  model  in  a  certain 
position  in  the  light  or  by  the  use  of  screens. 


66  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

a  Rembrandt  does  not  show  with  advantage  in 
this  style  of  picture. 

As  to  the  vignette  gradation,  it  is  obtained 
without  any  difficulty  whatever  by  exposing 
the  proof  to  light  on  its  removal  from  the  print- 
ing-frame under  a  vignette  glass,  or  a  vignette 
paper  with  a  black  centre  fading  off  to  light 
edges — that  is,  shaded  the  reverse  of  that 
usually  employed  for  the  ordinary  style  of 
vignette. 

The  gradation  is  produced  on  ferrotypes,  and 
also  on  negatives,  but  then  the  effect  is  not 
nearly  so  good  as  by  the  manner  above  ex- 
plained— by  interposing  a  small  notched  dead- 
black  mask  at  a  certain  distance  between  the 
sitter  and  the  lens,  and  adjusting  it  so  as  to 
show  on  the  ground-glass  of  the  camera  a  vig- 
netted image. 


CHAPTER  VIL 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  EYES  CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 

Le  regard  est  un  reflet  de  Vdme;  it  expresses 
all  our  sensations,  joy  or  sorrow,  love  or  hatred: 
it  speaks.  Rembrandt  and  Holbein,  Titian  and 
Caravaggio,  Velasquez  and  Vincente  Joanes, 
Clouet  and  Le  Sueur — all  the  artists  of  every 
school — generally  direct  the  gaze  to  the  observ- 
er ;  the  photographers,  as  a  rule,  turn  it  away 
and  thus  deprive  themselves  of  the  most  effec- 
tive means  of  giving  life,  expression  and  charac- 
ter to  their  models.  Do  you  want  an  example 
among  thousands?  Look  at  the  portrait  of 
Mona  Lisa — la  joconde — by  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
How  simple  is  the  attitude,  but  how  graceful 
and  noble  also  in  its  simplicity  :  the  body  turn- 
ed three-quarters,  the  head  almost  full  face,  a 
drapery  thrown  on  her  shoulder,  one  arm  and 
the  hands  resting  on  the  arm-chair,  and  that  is 
all.  But  that  inexpressible  smile,  that  fasci- 
nating look  full  of  promises  impress  one  with 
an  emotion  he  will  never  forget.  Turn  her 
eyes  away,  and  the  charm  which  attracts  you 
to  the  enchantress  as  the  magnet  attracts  the 


*  In  the  Louvre,  Salon  carre. 


68  THE  LIGHTING   IN   PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

steel  is  destroyed.  This  portrait  has  often  been 
engraved,  but  the  artists  have  failed  to  render 
the  expression  of  the  beautiful  Lisa  ;  in  fact,  it 
is  an  impossibility. 

It  is  sometimes  given  as  a  general  rule  to 
' '  never  allow  the  head  to  be  turned  in  one  direc- 
tion and  the  eyes  in  the  opposite."  This  is 
wrong.  A  three-quarter  view  admits  quite  well 
of  the  vision  being  directed  towards  you.  The 
rule  applies  only  to  poses  which  cause  one  to 
strain  the  eyes  into  the  corners,  and  this  even  is 
not  without  exception,  as  seen  in  the  portraits  of 
Michael  Angelo,  Van-dyck,  Giulio  Romano, 
Salvator  Rosa,  etc.,  painted  by  themselves. 
However,  it  must  be  admitted  that  to  direct  the 
gaze  to  the  observer — the  lens,  in  photography 
— is  not  always  possible,  and  not  always  pro- 
ductive of  a  very  good  effect ;  for  if  we  study 
the  features  of  the  model  we  may  observe  that 
they  are  not  symmetrical  :  the  oval  of  the  face 
is  not  graceful,  the  mouth  slightly  crooked,  the 
nose  not  straight,  the  eyes  sunken,  without 
expression  or  one  larger  than  the  other  ;  hence 
the  necessity  of  posing  the  model  in  the  most 
advantageous  attitude  to  conceal  these  imperfec- 
tions. But,  whenever  it  is  possible,  one  should 
select  a  pose  that  will  admit  of  directing  the  eyes 
into  the  lens,  not  on  the  side,  not  over  it,  as  if 
the  model  were  looking  at  your  forehead. 


THE   LIGHTING   IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  69 

The  old  photographers,  the  daguerreotypists, 
strictly  followed  this  rule.  There  was  conse- 
quently in  their  portraits  little  difference  in  the 
direction  of  the  head  and  that  of  the  body. 
This  method  has  been  much  criticised ;  but  it  was 
not  the  pose  which  was  at  fault,  for  it  imparts 
repose  and  distinction  to  the  subject,  and  is 
well  adapted  to  the  composition  of  portraits. 
The  fault  was  in  the  arrangement  of  draperies, 
and  in  the  accessories,  which  were  common- 
place and  not  appropriate — a  table  on  which 
one  arm  was  generally  resting,  a  pot  of  flowers, 
a  book,  etc. — and  in  the  lighting,  of  which 
most  of  them  seem  to  have  had  no  notion. 
''The  three-quarter  view  of  the  head,"  says 
Burnet,^'  ''gives  to  the  artist  the  opportunity  of 
representing  both  sides,  independent  of  which 
advantage  it  has  a  great  variety  of  forms,  and 
gives  an  opportunity  for  introducing  breadth  of 
light  and  shade."  On  the  same  subject  the  dis- 
tinguished author  of  ' '  Pictorial  Effects  in  Pho- 
tography" remarks:  "However  graceful  a  fig- 
ure may  appear,  which  has  cost  some  effort  to 
the  sitter  to  attain,  it  does  not  compensate  for 
the  unaffected  air  and  repose  derived  from  the 
head  and  body  placed  in  one  direction." 

In  the  preceding  pages  it  has  been  observed 
that  the  eyes  should  be  lighted  by  one  light 

"  Burnet's  Hints  on  Art."    New  York  :  Edw.  L.  Wilson. 


70  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

only — moreover,  it  is  a  rule  without  exception  for 
the  illumination  of  the  whole  body — and,  there- 
fore, there  should  be  but  one  luminous  spot. 
This  reflection,  so  necessary  to  give  life  and 
animation  to  the  eyes,  should  be  placed  in  the 
upper  part,  on  the  side  of  the  source  of  light— 
nowhere  else — and  visible  and  equal  in  both 
eyes  ;  therefore,  the  head  of  the  model  should 
be  turned  to  the  light  just  enough  to  produce 
that  effect.^  In  that  position  the  head  is  quite 
well  lighted,  showing  the  classic  illumination 
on  the  bridge  of  the  nose.  Many  artists  follow 
that  simple  rule  of  placing  the  model  in  the 
light,  imparting  afterwards  effect  by  softening 
the  shadows  or  accentuating  them  and  taking 
the  most  advantageous  view. 

All  reflections  from  the  walls,  f  the  floor  or 
curtains,  which  cast  an  actinic  light  into  the 
eyes— not  always  apparent  when  viewing  the 
model,  but  which  print  white  more  or  less 
on  the  positive  proof — should  be  avoided.  If 
this  rule  be  observed,  and  having  no  bare  glass 
in  front  of  the  model,  blue  eyes  can  be  photo- 
graphed as  well  as  dark  ones,  and  the  pupils 
will  have  no  tendency  to  contract. 

In  directing  the  sight,  the  model  should  be 

*  A  revolving  platform  is  most  useful  for  placing  the  model  in  the 
proper  light,  without  the  inconvenience  of  moving  him  at  all. 
f  They  should  be  painted  orange-green. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  7 1 

requested  to  look  at  some  object  placed  in  an 
obscure  part  of  the  studio,  so  much  the  larger 
as  it  is  farther  off.  At  a  distance  of  fourteen 
feet  it  may  be  about  ten  inches  square.^ 

If  the  sight  be  directed  into  the  lens,  the 
camera  should  be  placed  under  a  canopy  pro- 
jecting fifteen  or  eighteen  inches  over  it.  This 
arrangement,  or  any  similar  one,  is  equally 
useful  to  shelter  the  lens  from  extraneous  or 
reflected  light  in  order  to  obtain  clear  negatives. 

Lastly,  the  sitter  should  be  instructed  not  to 
look  steadily  at  a  particular  spot,  but  anywhere 
at  the  object  given  for  the  direction  of  the  e3^es, 
and  to  blink  them  naturally  during  the  time  of 
exposure. 

In  all  the  examples  of  lighting  given  in  the 
preceding  pages  the  reader  must  have  observed 
that  the  light  from  above  illuminates  the  model 
throughout,  casting  deep  shadows  under  the 
eyebrows,  etc.,  while  the  side  light  softens 
these  shadows,  relieves  the  lights  by  stronger 
lights  and  breaks  the  evenness  of  the  lighting 
by  casting  a  shadow  on  the  side  of  the  model 
opposite  to  its  direction.  As  a  rule^  horizontal 
or  vertical  lights  should  be  excluded.  All 
lights,  whether  from  the  side  or  glazed  roof, 

*  The  distance  should  vary  according  as  the  model  is  presbyte  or 
myope,  for  it  is  important  that  he  sees  the  object  quite  distinctly, 
otherwise  the  form  of  the  eye  would  be  altered  and  the  expression 
changed. 


72  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

should  fall  on  the  model  at  a  certain  angle,  and 
the  latter  should  dominate,  for  it  is  by  its 
agency  that  the  modeU  is  obtained. 

In  concluding  I  will  repeat  what  I  have  often 
said  in  the  course  of  this  essay:  Study,  again, 
always,  not  only  the  art  of  lighting — lights  and 
shades  are  the  colors  of  the  photographer — 
but  also  the  art  of  posing,  both  arts  being  de- 
pendent on  each  other.  ' '  By  studying  the 
great  masters,"  says  Opie,  ''you  will  by  degrees 
become  acquainted  with  all  the  artifices  of 
contrasting  light  and  shade  to  produce  relievo 
and  uniting  light  and  dark  objects  in  massive 
order  to  give  splendor  and  breadth  of  effect;  of 
gradually  sinking  some  effects  wholly  or  partly 
in  shadow  and  losing  their  outlines  in  the  back- 
ground to  produce  softness  and  harmony;  and 
of  making  in  other  places  abrupt  transitions 
to  produce  vivacity  and  spirit."  The  studies 
will  equally  teach  you  where  to  strengthen  the 
light  and  soften  the  shadows  by  retouching  the 
negatives,  without  altering  the  anatomy  of  the 
face,  and  how  to  improve  and  give  vigor  to  the 
picture  by  printing  dodges.  Indeed,  the  study 
of  light  and  shade  is  no  less  important  to  the 
retoucher  than  to  the  photographer.  That  im- 
portant auxiliary  to  our  art — Retouching — is 
generally,  not  to  say  always,  much  neglected, 
being  intrusted  to  persons  having  no  knowl- 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  73 

edge  of  the  chiaro-oscuro — no  artistic  education, 
and  who  do  it  mechanically.  No  wonder  that 
the  effects  produced  in  the  studio  are  all  oblit- 
erated so  as  to  result  in  those  inspired  pictures 
in  which  all  the  half  tones  and  half  shades 
accentuating  the  meplats  are  drowned  in  an 
even  gradation.  In  former  times  the  negatives 
were  retouched  by  the  photographer  himself, 
and  simply  consisted  in  producing  effects  which 
cannot  be  obtained  by  lighting  in  the  studio, 
to  repeat  the  lights,  to  give  them  vigor  by 
touches  of  light  in  the  prominent  parts,  to  join 
the  shadows  to  the  lights,  to  lighten  the  half 
shades  or  soften  the  too  deep  shadows  resulting 
either  from  the  chemical  process  or  a  deficient 
lighting,  being  careful  not  to  touch  the  delicate 
shading  of  the  face.  By  such  a  judicious  treat- 
ment the  pictures  were  certainly  improved, 
but  now —  ? 


Every  day  you  should  spare  time  to  experi- 
ment on  lighting.  All  educated  artists  who  prac- 
tise the  art  of  photography — for  photqgraphy  is 
an  art — never  cease  to  study  the  lighting  in  the 
glass-room,  which  presents  more  difficulties 
than  appear  at  first  sight.  The  late  Adam 
Salomon,  who  was  a  sculptor  of  talent  and  a 
photographer  that  very  few  have  equalled,  had 


74  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

' '  two  life-sized  figures  dressed  in  black  trousen^ 
for  his  essays;  and  since  he  had  here  the  con- 
trasts of  black  draperies  and  white  features, 
which  is  the  plague  of  the  photographer,  he 
knew  very  well  that  if  he  could  succeed  with 
these  he  could  succeed  with  live  models." 

A  plaster  figure  is  also  excellent  as  a  model, 
for  it  is  not  easy  to  light  it  so  as  to  preserve 
the  delicate  details,  to  avoid  solarization  and  to 
obtain  transparency  in  the  deep  shadows.  By 
experimenting  with  this  and  with  bas-reliefs, 
one  will  find  how  useful  are  the  head  and 
colored  side  screens,  but  how  objectionable  the 
white  reflectors. 


The  selection  of  the  lens  for  portraiture  is 
quite  important ;  success,  in  a  great  measure, 
depends  upon  it.  Short-focus  lenses,  so  useful 
when  the  photographic  films  were  not  nearly  so 
sensitive  as  we  can  prepare  them  now,  should 
be  discarded  for  those  of  long  focus.  The 
distance  at  which  the  latter  should  be  placed 
from  the  model  not  only  gives  a  more  truthful 
perspective,  nullifies  the  deformation  of  the 
foreground — the  nose,  the  shoulders,  the  hands, 

*  Fourteen  to  twenty  inches  focal  length,  according  to  the  size  of 
picture.  Adam  Salomon  used  the  latter  for  8  x  lo.  For  large  heads  a 
group  lens  of  24  to  30  inch  focus  Is  recommended  by  leading  photog- 
raphers. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  75 

etc. — but  also  diminishes  the  imperfections  of 
the  features  and  the  blotches  of  the  skin  to  a 
great  extent.  By  diffusing  the  focus,  or  using 
large  diaphragms  to  obtain  a  slight  aberration 
— such  as  observed  with  single  lenses  now  em- 
ployed by  some  photographers  for  portraiture — 
the  latter  defects  are  still  more  diminished,  and 
soft  and  more  pleasing  pictures  produced  which 
need  little  touching  up.  It  is  a  common  fault 
to  ''focus"  as  sharply  as  possible.  We  do  not 
see  nature  with  that  profusion  and  minuteness 
of  detail  which  are  thus  represented  in  portraits 
and  landscapes.  There  is  in  the  Louvre  a  pic- 
ture which  attracts  much  attention,  but  which 
is  also  much  criticised  by  connoisseurs.  It  is  a 
portrait  by  Balthasar  Denner,  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man painter,  which  is  a  marvel  of  reality  and 
of  accuracy  in  its  details — he  worked  with  a 
magnifying-glass.  The  minute  creases  of  the 
skin,  the  marblings  of  the  face,  the  veins  under 
the  epidermis,  the  black  spots  on  the  nose,  the 
objects  reflected  in  the  eyes,  all  are  minutel}^ 
represented.  But  the  effect,  although  striking, 
is  less  pleasing,  less  impressive,  than  that  ob- 
tained by  the  broad  manner  of  Vandyck,  and 
certainly  less  artistic :  a  servile  imitation  of 
nature  is  not  a  work  of  art.  A  true  artist  will 
always  sacrifice  details  to  the  ensemble  and  the 
secondary  to  the  primary  parts  of  the  subject. 


76  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

Be  careful  to  produce  softer  effects  of  liglit 
and  shade,  when  working  with  short-focus  or 
rapid  lenses,  which  more  brilliantly  illuminate 
the  image  by  concentrating  the  light,  and  there- 
fore produce  more  contrasts  than  appear  on  the 
model. 

Observe  the  inverse  rule  while  using  long- 
focus  lenses  or  small  diaphragms  to  improve 
the  definitions.  Sharpness  is  always  produced 
at  the  expense  of  vigor  and  brilliancy,  the  light 
being^diffused  at  the  focus  of  the  lens. 

Do  not  neglect,  therefore,  to  study  your  op- 
tical apparatus  and  your  photo-chemical  proc- 
esses, the  development  especially. 

In  the  wet-collodion  process  the  development 
proper  has  very  little  or  no  influence  on  the 
final  result,  the  exposure  being  the  only  factor, 
although  it  is  possible  to  diminish  or  increase 
the  contrasts  by  well-known  means,  but  the 
latter  is  generally  obtained  by  sacrificing  some 
of  the  most  delicate  details  in  the  lights  or  in 
the  shadows. 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  gelatine  process 
that  part  of  the  photographic  operation — the  de- 
velopment— being  quite  under  control,  has  ac- 
quired a  real  importance.  '^It  is  an  art  by 
itself,"  and  one  may  entirely  spoil  the  effects 


*  This  observation  holds  good  when  working  with  rapid  gelatine  dry- 
plates.    The  reason  is  obvious. 


THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS.  77 

of  lighting  by  not  knowing  how  to  regulate  it. 
Indeed,  the  development  of  gelatine  plates  is  a 
matter  of  very  serious  and  interesting  studies. 
One  can  produce  vigor  or  softness  by  its  sole 
agency,  but  not  remedy,  of  course,  an  imper- 
fect, inartistic  lighting  or  a  deficient  exposure. 


In  your  practice  do  not  confine  yourself  to 
the  part  of  a  copyist.  ''There  is,"  says  Mr.  H. 
P.  Robinson^  "a.  pernicious  custom  amongst 
some  inferior  photographers  of  collecting  to- 
gether a  set  of  poses  and  fitting  their  sitters  to 
them,  or  of  allowing  their  customers  to  select 
their  own,  no  matter  how  incongruous  the 
thing  may  be  as  long  as  it  is  paid  for.  Photog- 
raphers should  learn  the  principles  of  their  art, 
and  then  invent  poses  for  themselves  instead  of 
crowing  in  borrowed  plumes.  The  effect  is 
peculiarly  ridiculous  when  the  feathers  are  too 
fine  for  the  bird,  and  the  '  artist '  endeavors  to 
make  a  maid-servant  look  like  a  duchess. 
Here  would  be  a  time  to  introduce  your  col- 
umn and  curtain  (and  Tudor  parlor)  if  you 
like."^ 

Be  yourself.    By  select  readings,  the  study  of 


* "  The  Pictorial  Effect  in  Photography."  Second  edition.  New 
York  :  Scovill  &  Adams  Company.  The  first  edition,  well  illustrated, 
was  published  in  1869  by  Piper  &  Carter,  London. 


78  THE  LIGHTING  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS. 

nature  and  of  the  great  painters  and  sculptors 
— which  is  a  conditio  sine  qua  non — every  one 
having  a  natural  intuition  of  the  beautiful  can 
acquire  a  real  and  original  talent  which  will 
place  him  in  something  more  than  an  ordinary 
rank  amongst  artists  and  photographers. 


APPENDIX. 


The  Development  in  Relation  to  the  Light- 
ing— The  Use  of  Orthochromatic  Plates 
in  Portraiture. 

In  the  last  chapter  it  has  been  observed  that 
the  beginner  should  not  confine  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  art  of  posing  and  lighting,  but  also 
thoroughly  study  the  photo-chemical  processes 
by  which  the  pictures  are  obtained,  the  develop- 
ment of  gelatine  plates  especially.  Indeed, 
there  are  as  many  pictures  spoiled  by  a  bad 
management  of  this  operation  as  by  an  entirely 
defective  lighting,  most  photographers  develop- 
ing after  the  day's  work  with  a  ready-made 
compound  devised  once  for  all  to  suit  the  ex- 
posure— which  is,  so  to  speak,  always  the  same, 
one  or  two  seconds  more  or  less,  according  to 
the  intensity  of  the  light — without  taking  any 
note  of  how  the  model  was  dressed,  in  what 
manner  it  was  lighted,  etc.  Of  course  there  are 
many  photographers  who  know  well  how  to 
regulate  the  development,  but  there  are  as 
many  more  who  do  it  mechanically,  not  having 
experimentally  studied  the  behavior  of  the 
compounds  employed.    In  this  appendix  the 


8o 


APPENDIX. 


writer  will  try  to  demonstrate  the  chemical 
actions  and  to  show  what  should  be  the  treat- 
ment of  the  plate  to  suit  special  lighting. 

The  ferrous-oxalate  and  other  modxs  of  de- 
velopment are  now  discarded  by  almost  every 
professional  photographer  for  that  with  pyro- 
gallol,  which  is  under  better  control.  We  will 
consequently  confine  ourselves  to  the  pyro- 
gallol  process,  which,  as  the  reader  knows,  con- 
sists of  mixing  this  re-agent  with  an  alkali — 
ammonium  hydrate,  sodium  carbonate  or  potas- 
sium carbonate. 

Let  the  experimenter  place  the  gelatine  plate, 
which  we  will  suppose  to  have  been  well  ex- 
posed, in  a  dilute  solution  of  one  of  these 
alkalies;  nothing  appears,  but  if  a  small  quan- 
tity of  pyrogallol  be  added  the  image  comes 
out  in  a  certain  period,  and  if  the  development 
be  carried  through  without  adding  more  pyro- 
gallol, a  negative  image  is  obtained  full  of  de- 
tails, but  without  sufficient  contrasts  to  produce 
a  brilliant  impression.  The  positive  will  be 
fiat,  without  vigor.  Now  make  the  opposite 
experiment — that  is,  develop  a  picture  taken 
from  the  same  model,  with  the  same  lighting 
and  time  of  exposure,  using  less  alkali  and  a 
full  dose  of  pyrogallol.  The  high  lights  then 
acquire  great  intensity,  but  the  half  shades,  or 
details  in  the  shadows,  hang  back  and  the 


APPENDIX. 


8l 


lights  become  solarized^'  i.e.,  the  half  lights 
buried  in  the  high  lights.  Result,  a  picture 
without  gradation,  white  and  black.  How  true 
is  this  remark  made  by  Captain  Abney :  ' '  The 
development  of  gelatine  plates  is  in  reality  an 
art  and  a  science  combined ;  the  art  consists  in 
getting  gradation,  the  science  in  mixing  your 
solutions  to  obtain  it." 

By  these  experiments  we  understand  the  ac- 
tion of  the  alkalies  and  that  of  pyrogallol  in 
the  development,  and  from  them  we  can  con- 
clude a  priori  that  the  latent  image  of  a  model 
lighted  by  a  soft,  subdued  light  cannot  be 
treated  like  one  brilliantly  lighted  with  great 
contrast  of  light  and  shade — a  la  Rembrandt, 
for  example,  which  is  the  extreme  of  this  man- 
ner of  lighting — both,  however,  having  been 
exposed  properly. 

When  the  model  is  lighted  so  as  to  produce 
the  latter  style  of  picture,  the  lights  have  nec- 
essarily a  great  tendency  to  flash  out  under  the 
action  of  the  developer,  while  the  half  shades 
require  an  energetic  treatment  to  be  brought 
out  in  time.  If,  then,  the  plate  be  acted  on  by 
a  normal  developer  (which  generally  consists 
of  three  grains  of  pyrogallol  and  eight  or  ten 


■"'^This  term  "  solarization "  usually  designates  the  reversal  of  the 
luminous  action  when  the  exposure  is  too  prolonged.  The  primary- 
result  is  that  we  explain  here. 


82 


APPENDIX. 


grains  of  potassium  carbonate  to  the  ounce  of 
water),  the  light  appears  rapidly  and  acquires 
too  great  an  intensity  before  the  details  in  the 
shadows  are  well  out.  The  resulting  picture  is 
therefore  a  mass  of  white  and  black,  or  deficient 
in  gradation  in  the  lights.  But  if,  instead  of 
proceeding  in  this  manner,  the  developer  be 
compounded  with,  say,  one-third  the  quantity 
of  pyrogallol,  the  lights  will  remain  compara- 
tively weak  during  the  first  period  of  the  de- 
velopment, and  as  soon  as  the  half  shades  are 
well  developed  in  density,  the  contrasts  are 
easily  obtained  by  the  addition  of  more  pyro- 
gallol, which,  however,  is  seldom  required  in 
the  case  in  question. 

In  the  opposite  case — that  is,  when  the  model 
is  lighted  by  a  diffused  light,  as  in  cloudy 
weather,  for  example — a  good  picture  may  be 
obtained  with  the  normal  developer,  provided 
the  contrasts  be  sufficient  in  the  lighting.  But 
this  generally  is  not  so,  and  effect  should  be 
produced  by  the  development.  Therefore  the 
plate  should  be  treated  by  a  developer,  contain- 
ing, say,  one-half  the  quantity  of  alkali  and  a 
good  dose  of  pyrogallol ;  and  when  the  lights 
are  visible  and  of  a  certain  density,  the  half 
shades  may  be  forced  out  by  adding  the  re- 
mainder of  the  alkali  by  degrees. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  multiply  these  exam- 


APPENDIX.  83 

pies.  From  the  preceding  any  one  will  see  at 
once  that  the  development  of  the  portrait  of  a 
child,  or  of  a  lady  with  a  very  fair  complexion, 
cannot  be  treated  like  those  of  persons  having 
a  colored  or  sunburnt  complexion,  the  former 
entering  into  the  general  treatment  of  the  first 
example,  and  the  latter  into  that  of  the  second. 

As  to  the  definite  formulas,  none  can  be 
given.  The  reason  is  obvious.  Moreover,  the 
difficulties  are  not  so  great  as  they  appear.  By 
a  few  experiments  well  conducted,  and  a  little 
practice,  one  will  soon  know  how  to  develop  a 
picture  according  to  the  lighting,  the  complex- 
ion and  the  dress  of  the  model.  The  general 
rule  is,  that  the  lights  should  not  gain  intensity 
before  the  half  shades  are  quite  visible. 

In  the  above  examples  it  is  supposed  that  the 
plates  have  been  well  exposed. 

The  development  according  to  the  exposure, 
which  should  necessarily  be  taken  into  account, 
is  exactly  similar.  When  a  plate  is  over- 
exposed the  lights  and  the  half  shades  have 
nearly  the  same  tendency  to  flash  out;  hence  a 
developer,  weak  in  alkali,  strong  in  pyrogallol, 
should  be  employed.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  plate  be  under-exposed — and  by  under- 
exposure we  mean  the  minimum,  for  a  plate 
really  under-exposed  never  yields  anything  but 
a  bad  white-and-black  picture — then  the  half 


84 


APPENDIX. 


tones  hang  back  while  the  lights  appear  and  in- 
tensify rapidly  under  the  action  of  the  normal 
developer.  Therefore  the  plate  should  be  treat- 
ed as  one  from  a  model  lighted  with  very  strong 
contrasts.  In  fact,  under-exposure  corresponds 
to  such  an  exaggerated  lighting. 

It  has  been  advised  in  recent  publications  to 
expose  for  the  shadows  and  let  the  lights  take 
care  of  themselves;  and  also  to  place  the  model 
in  a  strong  illumination  to  produce  bold  con- 
trasts of  light  and  shade,  exposing  then  for  the 
shadows  and  developing  as  usual.  Such  meth- 
ods cannot  be  recommended;  no  perfect  artistic 
effect  can  be  obtained  without  a  proper  light- 
ing in  the  studio — it  is  the  light  that  does  all. 

To  resume:  Pyrogallol  being  the  real  reduc- 
ing agent,  produces  vigor  and  intensity. 

The  alkalis  exalt  the  reductive  property  of 
pyrogallol  and  tend  to  diminish  the  contrasts. 

As  a  consequence  the  image  develops  slowly 
but  with  great  vigor  when  to  the  pyrogallol  a 
small  percentage  of  alkali  is  added ;  and,  on  the 
contrary,  it  appears  rapidly  in  all  its  details,  the 
lights  remaining  comparatively  weak  when  the 
alkali  is  employed  in  great  proportion.  In  ex- 
cess, the  alkalies  produce  fogginess. 

Besides  these  chemicals,  sodium  sulphite  and 
potassium  bromide  are  employed  with  the  alka- 
line pyrogallol.    The  former  is  an  absorbent  of 


APPENDIX.  85 

oxygen  and  acts,  therefore,  as  a  restrainer.  Its 
object  is  to  prevent  the  rapid  oxidation  of  pyro- 
gallol  when  in  presence  of  an  alkali,  and  to 
avoid  it  tinging  the  gelatine  film  yellow.  The 
bromide  checks  the  development  without  stop- 
ping it.  It  acts,  consequently,  as  a  regulator. 
Its  use  is  valuable  both  in  cases  of  over  or 
under-exposures.  In  the  former  case  it  tends 
to  give  clear  shadow  and  vigor;  in  the  latter  it 
allows  the  plate  to  be  submitted  to  a  long  treat- 
ment, in  order  to  bring  out  the  details  in  the 
shadows  without  danger  of  fogging  the  picture. 
Its  chemical  action  is  not  well  understood ;  its 
effect  is  to  prevent  the  reduction  of  the  silver 
salt  not  acted  on  by  light. 

We  have  purposely  given  general  directions 
without  entering  into  the  details  of  the  de- 
veloping process;  moreover,  it  pertains  but  in- 
cidentally to  the  subject  we  have  treated."^ 


We  wish  now  to  call  the  attention  of  por- 
traitists to  a  certain  process  for  improving  the 
negatives,  for  no  matter  how  well  the  model  is 
lighted  the  artistic  effect  is  not  rendered  as  it 
should  be,  owing  to  the  insensitiveness  of  the 


*See  our  work  "The  Photographic  Image,"  a  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical treatise  of  development. 


86 


APPENDIX. 


ordinary  photo-chemical  preparations  to  the 
less  refrangible  rays  6i  light. 

While  speaking  of  the  head  and  other  screens 
it  was  advised  to  have  them  made  of  a  light 
rose-colored  material.  This  had  for  its  object 
not  only  to  diffuse  and  regulate  the  light,  but 
also  to  reflect  on  the  model  a  feeble  non-actinic 
coloring  in  order  to  obtain  better  gradation  in 
the  parts  most  strongly  illuminated,  and  to 
lessen  the  contrasts  thereby,  because  in  photog- 
raphy the  light  and  shade  are  always  repro- 
duced with  greater  contrast  than  they  appear 
in  nature.  But  this  method,  although  much 
improving  the  lighting,  is  not  sufficient  to  ob- 
tain perfect  negatives ;  besides,  for  certain  com- 
plexions, for  certain  subjects,  such  screens  are 
objectionable  and  should  be  replaced  by  others 
in  light  blue  or  violet  material.^ 

Every  photographer  knows  too  well  that  the 
rays  of  light  impress  the  photographic  film  ac- 
cording to  their  refrangibility,  and  that  the 
colors  are,  in  consequence,  not  reproduced  with 
their  luminous  value,  thus  modifying  the  grada- 

*  Everybody  has  a  natural  color.  The  skin  of  the  human  face  is 
more  or  less  yellow,  red,  brown,  etc.,  which  colors,  as  said  before,  more 
or  less  photographically  alter  the  effects  of  the  lighting.  Hence  the  use 
of  certain  colored  reflectors.  It  is  sometimes  advised  to  whiten  the 
face  of  the  model.  This  is  quite  objectionable,  for  it  increases  the  diffi- 
culties in  obtaining  the  inodele  of  the  face,  together  with  details  in  the 
draperies.  If  any  powder  be  employed,  which  is  often  useful,  it  should 
be  of  a  flesh  color,  containing  as  little  white  as  possible,  if  at  all. 


APPENDIX. 


87 


tion  from  light  to  shade  by  forming  half  shades 
where  there  should  be  light  or  half  light  and 
destroying  the  delicate  half  tints.  Besides,  the 
flesh  is  rendered  too  dark,  not  in  harmony  with 
the  dress,  the  imperfections  of  the  skin  exag- 
gerated, and  even  those  spots  not  perceptible 
to  the  eye  become  visible  ;  hence  the  necessity 
of  much  retouching  of  the  negatives,  which, 
however  skilfully  done,  alters  and  spoils  the 
resemblance.  Indeed,  it  is  a  great  desideratum 
to  obtain  negatives  requiring  but  little  working 
up  to  preserve  the  texture  of  the  skin,  instead 
of  giving  to  the  living  flesh  that  appearance  of 
marble,  and  destroying  the  modele  indicating 
the  form  of  the  face,  as  may  be  seen  in  all 
those  portraits  with  enameled  faces  made  nowa- 
days. 

Such  negatives  can  be  obtained  by  the  proc- 
ess discovered  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Vogel. 

To  our  knowledge  this  remarkable  process, 
which  overcomes  the  most  serious  shortcomings 
of  photography,  is  not  employed  for  portrait- 
ure. Why,  it  is  difficult  to  say,  and  can  be  ex- 
plained solely  by  the  routine  to  which  nearly 
every  one  is  inclined  in  his  ordinary  occupa- 
tion. However,  the  most  life-like  and  truly 
artistic  representation  of  nature  can  only  be 
obtained  by  the  orthochromatic  photography. 
It  is  the  process  of  the  future,  and  should  be 


88 


APPENDIX. 


adopted  at  once  by  skilful  and  progressive  pho- 
tographers. 

In  a  previous  publication  the  azaline-erythro- 
sine  bath  the  late  B.  Obernetter  employed  for  sub- 
jects  not  containing  much  red  was  recommend- 
ed by  the  writer ;  but  greater  sensitiveness  is 
obtained  by  first  bathing  the  plate  for  one 
minute  in  a  niooo  solution  of  silver  nitrate, 
then  flowing  three  times  with  the  following 


solution  : 

Water  looo 

Erythrosine  i:iooo   25 

Azaline  1:1000   2 

Ammonium  Carbonate  1:6.   50 


This  is  certainly,  for  portraiture,  a  capital 
improvement ;  moreover,  it  admits  of  the  use 
of  a  very  light  yellow  or  green  screen. 

The  following  is  a  bath  of  silver  erythrosinate 


for  general  use  : 

Aqueous  solution  of  erythrosine  1:500   12 

Distilled  water  150 

Aqueous  solution  of  silver  nitrate  1:500   12 

Ammonia   4 

Mix  in  order. 


The  plates  are  bathed  in  this  solution  for  one 
and  one-half  minutes,  theh  rapidly  rinsed, 
drained  and  allowed  to  dry  spontaneously. 

The  above  quantity  of  solution  is  good  for 
preparing  from  six  to  ten  plates,  according  to 
their  size. 

The  dyed  plates  will  keep  for  about  two 
weeks  in  warm  w^eather. 


APPENDIX. 


89 


In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  given  in- 
structions on  the  lighting  in  studios  ;  we  will 
now  describe,  for  the  benefit  of  beginner- 
amateur  photographers,  the  manner  of  operat- 
ing in  open  air  and  in  a  parlor.  Necessarily 
these  instructions  will  be  succinct,  since  the 
principles  of  the  art  of  posing  and  lighting 
have  been  before  explained. 


In  open  air  the  best  plan  to  obtain  effects  of 
light  and  shade  is  to  place  the  model,  M,  in  the 
corner  of  a  yard  or  of  a  veranda,  or  near  a  wall 
(see  diagram).  Behind  him  a  background  and 
in  front  two  screens  (A  A)  of  a  deep  neutral 
color  should  be  placed  a  little  apart  from  each 
other,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  vision  (the 
camera),  their  object  being  to  shut  off  the  front 
light.    The  dark  colored  screen,  S,  should  be 


90 


APPENDIX. 


placed  obliquely,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  in 
order,  by  avoiding  reflection  from  the  wall,  to 
obtain  shadows  on  one  side  of  the  face. 

In  a  parlor  portraits  with  soft  or  strong  ar- 
tistic oppositions  of  light  and  shades,  Rem- 
brandt-like, can  be  obtained  with  the  greatest 
ease.  The  heavy  curtains  of  the  window  must 
necessarily  be  pushed  on  one  side,  so  as  not  to 
obstruct  the  light,  but  those  which  are  trans- 
parent are  not  objectionable,  on  the  contrary, 
for  the  side  of  the  model  facing  the  window 
are  always  too  brightly  lighted,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence too  strong  shadows  are  cast  on  the  side 
opposite. 

The  light  must  of  course  fall  at  a  certain 
angle  on  the  model.  For  this  purpose  the  lower 
part  of  the  window  should  be  covered  with  a 
semi-transparent  material  extending  upwards 
at  about  from  four  to  five  feet  from  the  floor. 

The  model  is  best  seated  in  a  diagonal  to  the 
light  at,  say,  five  feet  from  the  window  and 
back  of  it.  Then  a  transparent  head-screen, 
admitting  plenty  of  light  to  pass,  is  placed  at  a 
certain  distance  over  the  head,  in  order  to  still 
subdue  the  often  too  strongly  lighted  side  of 
the  figure  and  of  the  hair.  Lastly,  a  reflector 
placed  not  too  near  the  model  should  throw 
light  on  the  shadowed  side  to  lessen  the  con- 
trasts of  light  and  shade.    This  manner  of  di- 


APPENDIX. 


91 


reeling  the  light  is  excellent  for  bust  and  three- 
quarter  figures.  For  full  length  other  dis- 
positions which  suggest  themselves  should  be 
resorted  to. 


OTHER  BOOKS 

—  BY  — 

P.  C.  DUCHOCHOIS. 


(No.  38  OF  The  Scovill  Photographic  Series.) 
A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


OF  THE 

FHOTO-IPRESSIONS  WITHOUT  SILVER  SALTS. 

For  the  use  of  Photographers,  Architects,  Engineers, 
Draughtsmen,  and  Wood  and  Metal 
Engravers. 

Containing  all  the   Processes   employed  to  reproduce  Plans, 
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and  Metal  Plates,  and  a  complete  description  of  the 

URANOTYPE,   ANILINE,   PLATINOTYPE   AND  IM- 
PROVED CARBON  PROCESS,  Etc.,  Etc. 


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THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  IMAGE. 

A  THEORETICAL  AND  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

OF  THE 

DEVELOPMENT  IN 

GELATINE,  COLLODION,  FERROTYPE 

AND 

SILVER  BROMIDE  PAPER  PROCESSES. 

By  p.  C.  DUCHOCHOIS. 


It  contains  over  Two  Hundred  (300)  pages  of  the  most  valu- 
able instruction  for  working  photographers. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction. 


PART  ] 


Chapter  I.— Chemistry  and  Behavior  of 
the  Reagents  Employed  in  the  Devel- 
opment. 

Chapter  II.— The  Dark-Room  Illumination 
Chapter  III.— The  Exposure-Time. 

PART  II. 

Chapter  I. — Generalities  on  the  Develop- 
ment. 

Chapter  II.— The  Development  with  Pyro- 
gallol.    First  Ex.: 

Chapter  III,—  Summary  of  the  Rules  Reg- 
ulating- the  Exposure-Time  and  the 
Development. 

Chapter  IV.— Fixing. 

Chapter  V  .—Intensification. 

Chapter  VI. — Reduction  of  Inten.sity. 

Chapter  VII.— Causes  of  Failures. 

Chapter  VIII  —The  Development  with 
Hydroquinone. 

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Chapter  IX.— The  Development  with  Eik- 
onogen. 

Chapter  X.— The  Development  with  Fer- 

rous-Oxalate. 
Chapter  XL— TheDevelopment  with  Py  ro- 
catechin,  Hydroxylamine,  and  Para- 
amidophenol. 


The  Development  in  the  Collodion  and 
Silver  Bromide  Printing  Processes. 

Chapter  I.— The  Development  in  the  Wet 
Collodion  Process. 

Chapter  II. — The  Development  in  the  Dry 
Collodion  Process. 

Chapter  III.— The  Development  of  Ferro- 
types. 

Chapter  IV.— The  Development  of  Gela- 

tino-Bromide  Paper. 
Chapter  V.— Varnishing. 


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Are  unexcelled  for  portraits,  landscapes  and  general  work,  yielding 
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They  develop  and  fix  very  readily,  needing  no  extra  precaution, 
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Is  a  superior  substitute  for  albumen  paper,  and  is  free  from 
the  defects  common  to  gelatine  and  collodion  papers.  It 
gives  Clear  whites,  exquisite  tones  and  high  gfloss,  and  does 
not  stain  the  negatives. 

Solio  will  not  curl,  crack  or  blister ;  requires  no 
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-t-  ^ 

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pages.    Bound  in  cloth.    Price,  $2,  postpaid. 

Photographic  Mosaics. — An  annual  record  of  photographic 
progress.  Edited  by  Edward  L.  Wilson,  Ph.D.  Issued 
every  November;  now  in  its  twenty-eighth  year.  Univers- 
ally acknowledged  to  be  a  most  helpful  annual.  Price, 
paper,  50c.;  cloth  bound,  $1. 


"ELITE"  STUDIO  STAND. 


Patented. 


These  are  the  only  Stands  suited  in  workmanship  and  finish,  also  in  size^  to  the  large 
American  Optical  Co.'s  Cameras,  with  their  great  length  of  bellows  and  extension  platform. 
Practical  portraitists  cannot  fail  to  admire  the  ease  with  which  these  stands  can  be  adjusted 
at  any  desirable  height  or  inclination,  and  the  noiseless  manner  in  which  they  may  be 
moved  from  place  to  place,  their  elegant  appearance  and  accurate  construction. 

Instead  of  the  clumsy  levers  and  racks,  by  which  accurate  adjustment  of  the  platform 
was  obtained  in  the  older  stands ;  the  proper  elevation  and  inclination  are  produced  in  the 
"  Elite  "  stand  by  cog-wheel  and  snake  screw,  and  the  manipulation  at  one  side  by  a  wheel 
with  handle^  and  within  reach  of  the  operator,  so  that  he  may  adjust  the  height  or  incli- 
nation of  this  camera  without  taking  his  head  from  under  the  focusing  cloth.  By  means 
of  the  wheel  worked  at  the  rear  end  of  the  platform,  the  horizontal  position  of  the  plat- 
form may  be  inclined  upward  or  downward  to  a  limit  of  15  degrees.  A  great  advantage 
from  this  movement,  we  observe,  is  that  a  true  horizontal  position  — so  difficult  to  obtain 
in  the  old  camera  stands — is,  with  these,  an  easy  matter  to  effect.  This  is  especially  impor- 
tant to  those  who  may  use  them  for  reproduction  work.  In  the  No.  2  size  the  platform  is 
fifty-two  inches  long  and  twenty-five  inches  wide,  and  its  length  may  be  increased  to 
seventy  inches  by  an  attachment  which  slides  out  forward,  making  it  quite  long  enough 
for  supporting  a  large  copying  camera.  Then  a  semi-circular  cut-out,  to  the  rear  end  of 
the  platform,  is  a  convenience  to  the  operator,  who  is  thus  enabled  not  only  to  stand 
closely  up  to  the  ground  glass,  no  matter  how  far  the  camera  may  have  been  pushed 
forward,  but  bending  of  the  body  is  obviated,  whica  is  quite  a  necessity  with  all  the  older 
stands. 

''KIvITK"  SnrUDIO  STANDS 

No.  1  Size.   No.  2  Size 


Prick,  with  Rack  and  extension  for  Plate  Holder   $32.00  $36.00 

Highest  point  from  platform  to  floor   48  48 

Lowest     "      "         "             "    32  32 

IVidth  of  platform   22  26 

Length  of  platform  without  attachment   45  52 

with           "    60  70 


For  Sale  by  all  Dealers  in  Photographic  Materials  and  The  Scovill  &  Adams  Company. 


xii 


THE  AMERICAN  OPTICAL  CO.'S 

s  UNRIVALED  ^ 


fOKfKAIf  CAMERAS. 


The  American  Optical  Company  Portrait  Cameras  are 
manufactured  from  the  best  mahogany,  French  polished, 
and  have  the  Lever  Focusing-  Attachment,  by  which  the 
most  delicate  focus  can  be  adjusted  with  the  utmost  facility 
and  ease.  Above  10  x  12  size,  they  have  double  bellows, 
vertical  shifting  front,  the  V-shaped  wooden  guide,  and 
telescopic  platform. 


With  Double 

No.       Size.  Swing-back. 

5—  8x10  ins.,  with  rigid  platform  30  ins.  long  $38  00 

6—  10x13    "       "       "         "      36      "    48  00 

7 —  11x14    "     extension        "       48      "      double  bellows  and 

vertical  shifting  front,  64  00 

8—  12x15    "  "  "       48       "  "  72  00 

9—  14x17    "  "  "       60       "  "  76  00 

10—  16x20  "  "  "  65  "  "  88  00 

11—  17x20  "  "  "  65  "  "  90  00 

12—  18x22  "  "  "  70  "  "  100  00 

13—  20x24  "  "  "  72  "  "  110  00 

14—  22x27  "  "  72  "  "  130  00 

15—  25x30  "  "  80  "  170  00 


Buy  from  Dealers  or  the  ScoTill  &  Adams  Company. 


xiii 


Ain  OPTICAL  MPANY  Wli  GAMEl, 


WITH  WATERBURY  CURTAIN-SLIDE  HOLDER, 

No.  40.—  8  X  10  Royal  Camera,  double  swing--back:  3f50  00 

'*    41.— 11  X  14         "  "  ■  "    85  00 

"   42.-14x17         "  "  "   110  00 

Above  the  8  x  10  size  an  extra  ground-glass  is  sup>plied  for  use  in  focusing  when 

pictures  of  groups  are  being  taken. 


The  11  X  14  Boston  Imperial  Camera  is  the  same  as  an  11  x  14  Portrait  Camera,  with  the 
addition  of  an  8  x  10  Carnage  and  an  8  x  10  Holder,  and  is  used  to  make  two  imperials  on 
an  8  X  10  or  4-4  plate,  using  one  4-4  lens  •  two  cards  on  a  5  x  8  plate,  using  one  1-2  size 
lens;  two  large  panel  pictures.  6x10  inches  in  size,  can  also  be  made,  and  regular  work 
from  11 X 14  to  1-4  inclusive.  All  with  Double  Swing-back  and  Waterbury  Holder. 
No.  30.-11x14  Boston  Imperial  Camera,  with  8x10  attachment  and  holder,  $  85  00 
*•    31.-14x17     "  "  8x10        "  "         100  00 

32.-17x20  "  8x10        "  "         110  00 

"    33.-18x22     "  8x10        "  "         120  00 

34.-20x24  •*  •*         "     11x14        "  140  00 

For  Sale  by  all  Dealers  in  Photographic  Materials  and  The  Scovill  &  Adams  Company. 

xiv 


THE  AMERICAN  OPTICAL  CO.'S 

CABINET  PLATE  HOLDER  ATTACHMENT 

Consists  of  a  board  the  same  size  of 
the  plate-holder  of  the  camera.  It 
is  put  in  place  the  same  as  holders, 
upon  pegs,  with  spring  catch  at  top 
In  center  of  board  is  an  opening  with 
hinged  ground-glass  to  receive  the 
holder  selected,  4jixQ}i,  5x7,  or  5x8. 
Can  be  fitted  to  any  8x10  or  larger 
portrait  camera  by  sending  exact  size 
of  plate-holder.  When  wishing  to 
use  larger  plates  can  be  instantly 
removed.  By  the  aid  of  this  attach- 
ment and  twelve  single  light-weight 
holders  you  always  have  a  supply  of 
plate-holders  loaded  and  ready  for 
use,  save  the  expense  of  large  extra 
holders  and  many  a  trip  to  the  dark- 
room, and  you  are  sure  of  always 
getting  your  subject  in  the  proper 
position  on  the  plate. 

Am.  Optical  Co.  Best  Portrait^Camera  witb^one  single  Light-Weight  Holder,  price,  $8  00 

«         u     jQ  00 
11  00 

"    n  00 

"  12  00 

"  13  00 

"  13  00 

"  14  00 


Pop  8x10 
"  10  x  12 
11  X  14 
"  12  X  15 
"  I4x  17 
"  15  X  18 
"  17  X  20 
"  18  X  22 
"  20  X  24 


THE  GREAT  STUDIO  PLATE-HOLDER. 


THE  WATERBURY  HOLDER  may  be  adjusted  to  various  sizes  of  plates  quicker 
and  easier  than  any  other  Holder.    No  kits  are  required,  and  the  plates  used  must  be 
in  the  center,  and  may  be  laid  in  the  proper  place  in  the  dark.  ,    .     ,  rr.. 

The  Waterbury  Holder  requires  no  latches  to  secure  the  plate  firmly  in  place.  1  he 
mechanism  is  so  simple  that  it  cannot  get  out  of  order  except  by  destroying  the  Holder. 

The  Waterbury  Holder  adjustments  work  with  entire  freedom  and  yet  without 
vibration  or  side-play. 

The  Bonanza  Holder  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  best  wet-plate  Holder  ;  and  every  can- 
did man  will  admit  that  the  Waterbury  Holder  is  the  best  dry-plate  Holder  for  gallery  use . 
This  Holder,  with  Roller  Slide,  supplied  with  American  Optical  Co.  Portrait  Cameras. 


XV 


THE 

Scovill  &  Adams  Company, 

423  Broome  Street,  New  York  City, 

SUCCESSORS  TO  THE 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  DEPARTMENT 

 OF  THE — 

Scovill  Manufacturing  Company, 

Are  Manufacturers,  Importers  of  and  Dealers  in 

An  Unequalled  Variety  of 

PnotograDlilG  *  Goods, 

Embracing 

Every  Requisite  of  the 

Practical  Photographer, 

Professional  and  Amateur. 


Publication  Department. 

Publishers  of  "THE  SCOVILL  PHOTOGRAPHIC 
SERIES"  (40  publications),  the  "Photographic  Times 
Annual,"  etc.,  etc. 

Latest  Catalogue  of  Photographic  Books  and  Albums,  and 
a  copy  of  "  How  to  Make  Photographs  "  sent  free  on 
application. 

W.  IRVING  ADAMS,  H.  LITTLEJOHN, 

President      Treasurer.  Secretary 

xvi 


